Cycling: Getting Australia Moving

Executive Summary

Barriers, facilitators and interventions to get more Australians physically active through cycling

Adrian has an active interest in physical activity, public health, health promotion and mental health epidemiology.

Chris has a health promotion research focus directed towards tobacco control, sexual health and active transport (walking and cycling). Chris is currently involved in implementing and evaluating a three year cycling promotion program in western Sydney on the impact of increases in cycling on overall population health.

Jan’s research is primarily concerned with understanding the socio-environmental and personal determinants of physical activity (particularly active transport) for women and evaluation of interventions aimed at promoting physical activity.

Ian is an economist by training, with extensive experience in transport planning. This includes almost 15 years with the Western Australian Department of Transport and several with ARRB Consulting. He now runs his runs his own consulting firm CATALYST.

Elliot is a former health professional who turned his attention to transport planning. He is interested in the health, social, environmental and economic benefits of increasing the role of active transport. He is also Director of the Institute for Sensible Transport.

Suggested citation:

Bauman A., Rissel C., Garrard J., Ker I., Speidel R., Fishman E., 2008 Cycling:Getting Australia Moving: Barriers, facilitators and interventions to get more Australians physically active through cycling, Cycling Promotion Fund, Melbourne.

This report has been developed to assist practitioners, policy makers and planners to increase participation in bicycle riding by Australian adults. It does this by first setting the scene on Australian cycling and then outlines current barriers and facilitators to greater cycling participation.  Finally, the report makes a set of recommendations to increase bicycle riding among Australian adults.

Over 1.68 million adults cycled in 2006; an increase of 244,000 from 2001. Australian capital cities have also experienced an average 22% increase in bicycle journeys to work, with Melbourne’s growth rate soaring 42% between 2001 and 2006.

A range of interventions exist to encourage cycling; from cycling events attracting thousands of people, behaviour change programs targeting trips to work and school, social marketing campaigns and multifaceted community based programs. Those programs are successful in encouraging people to ride more often but their reach is currently limited and effectiveness will be enhanced with the development of more supportive physical environments, such as bicycle lanes and paths.

Valuing cycling

The value of current cycling to the economy is approximately $227.2 million per annum. Other benefits calculated for this report include reduced congestion ($63.9 million) and greenhouse gas emissions ($9.3 million).

What barriers exist to greater cycling participation?

Despite the significant increase in cycling over recent years and the multitude of benefits stemming from increased participation, a number of substantial barriers exist for large segments of the population.

Recommendations

Establishing a cycling-friendly policy and regulatory environment is a significant challenge and one that is not entirely within the direct control of the health sector.  A multi-faceted, whole-of-government approach is required. Each of the following recommendations are largely dependent upon one another and should be implemented in an integrated, coordinated way to increase bicycle participation:

" Mass marketing campaigns highlighting the benefits of cycling

" Bicycle education programs to increase skills, confidence and safety

" Behaviour change initiatives to market alternatives to car use

" Cycling events to provide incentives for people to ride in a supportive environment particularly for novice riders

" Urban planning/bicycle infrastructure/funding focused on increasing bicycle friendly design.

As Australians continue to lead increasingly busy lifestyles, cycling is in a unique position for its ability to combine physical activity, recreation and transport. This provides an important health benefit for a population failing to meet minimum physical activity requirements. Cycling is also a carbon neutral, petrol free form of transport, simultaneously helping Australians fight climate change and reduce fuel costs. For peak hour journeys in particular, the bicycle can reduce congestion and increase the efficiency of the transport system.

Creating more cycle friendly communities can also play an important role in creating better places to live, work, raise a family and grow old.

For Australia to fully capitalise on the benefits of cycling, a whole-of government approach is required, with commitment from the health, transport, environment, education and planning portfolios. Only through a combined approach can the benefits of cycling be fully realised.

1 Setting the scene

Cycling is becoming increasingly popular in Australia.  Between 2001 and 2006 the number of Australians aged 15 years and older who cycled for recreation in the previous 12 months increased by 244,500, with 1.7 million having cycled in 2006. In the same period bicycle journeys to work have risen 22% in Australian capital cities, with Melbourne achieving an increase of over 42%. Women and older Australians are less likely to cycle, a pattern which is not consistent with international cycling prevalence data. Countries with high rates of cycling for transport and recreation have few gender and age differences in cycling, while countries such as Australia, which have relatively low rates of cycling (particularly for transport), have large gender and age differences in cycling. Cycling also appeals to a large number of people who wish to avoid high impact forms of physical activity.

Valuing Cycling

The value of current cycling participation to the health system is calculated to be approximately $227.2 million per annum. In addition, benefits have been quantified in terms of reduced congestion ($63.9 million per annum) and greenhouse gas emissions ($9.3 million). Substantial increases in these benefits will flow from future growth in cycling participation.

Interventions to encourage cycling

An overview of the Australian cycling sector and current interventions is included in this report. These range from cycling events attracting thousands of people, behaviour change programs targeting ride to work and school, social marketing campaigns and multifaceted community based programs.

These programs are successful in encouraging people to take up cycling or ride more often but their reach is currently limited and effectiveness will be enhanced with the development of more supportive physical environments, such as bicycle lanes and paths.

2 Current barriers and facilitators to greater cycling participation by Australian adults

Cycling participation in many industrialised countries is higher than in Australia. However, bicycle ownership in Australia is high, indicating an underlying interest in cycling, with considerable potential for increased participation.

There is a range of significant barriers to the take up of cycling in Australia.

These have been described using the ecological model of physical activity and divided into five sections focused on the following factors influencing cycling. This report also provides evidence-based options for overcoming these barriers.

" Individual factors

" Social and cultural factors

" Environmental factors

" Safety

" Policy and regulation

Individual factors

This review found that a lack of skills, confidence and knowledge are all significant barriers to cycling.

Consistent Australian research indicates that motivations for cycling are principally focused on individual concerns, such as health and fitness.  With this in mind, measures to increase cycling participation include the -

i)         provision of riding skills classes; and

ii)        the development of mass marketing campaigns focusing on key motivations such as health, social interaction, and the convenience and low cost of cycling for transport.

Large-scale cycling events are also effective in promoting cycling participation. These events are not simply one-off activities. Participant surveys consistently indicate that cycling events generate increases in pre and post event cycling.  In addition, it may be necessary to challenge widely held perceptions that act as barriers to cycling, such as the need to be ‘super fit’ in order to start and that cycling in traffic is inherently hazardous.

Executive Summary

Social and cultural factors

Social and cultural factors were found to have an important influence on cycling levels. Lower socio-economic groups are less likely to make short trips by foot or bicycle and the physical environment in some low income areas is less conducive to active forms of travel. However the marked social gradient evident for leisure time physical activity is less prominent for cycling. This highlights the role of bicycle riding in promoting more equitable participation in both physical activity and personal mobility for population groups who do not own cars (up to 30% in some suburbs).

Social norms which tend to exclude women, older Australians and culturally diverse groups from cycling can be challenged through information and education campaigns. It is also necessary to address Australia’s current culture, whereby short local trips are almost invariably completed by motor vehicle, which could easily be undertaken by bicycle.

Environmental factors

The evidence reviewed in this report identified the physical environment as a key influence on cycling. This was divided into general urban design features and bicycle specific infrastructure.

Urban design: The literature is very clear on the influence urban design and land use planning has on ‘walkability’ and this can generally be extended to include cycling. For instance, low density development, with zoning that separates residential and commercial areas was found to increase travel distances which acts as a barrier to cycling. Higher density, mixed use development works to reduce average trip distance and this makes cycling and walking more attractive.

“There is growing evidence that low density neighbourhoods with poorly connected street networks affect how much time we spend walking, cycling and our ability to use public transport”

Bicycle infrastructure: Domestic and international literature highlight the important impact bicycle infrastructure provision has on cycling participation.

Australian cities and towns generally lack integrated networks of good quality bicycle paths and lanes and this is a significant barrier to greater participation.

Long term reform in urban design to create more compact, vibrant urban and regional centres is vital.  Widespread adoption of bicycle friendly design, such as integrated, connected on and off road bicycle routes is essential. Secure bicycle parking and showers at workplaces were also found to help more people make the daily commute by bicycle.

This report also found a strong case for better integration of bicycling with the public transport system. In countries with high rates of cycling, such as the Netherlands, some 38% of train journeys begin with a bicycle trip.  Developing a strategic network of bicycle routes to transport hubs, providing secure bicycle parking at stations and facilitating the carrying of bicycles on public transport have all been shown to be effective methods of encouraging cycling and have a high level of applicability to the Australian context due to its low density land use.  This report also examined the effect of ‘invisible infrastructure’ on cycling.

Invisible infrastructure refers to policy measures and general design features that indirectly impact on cycling, rather than specific bicycle infrastructure.  Material reviewed in this report show invisible infrastructure offers cost effective benefits that often result in win-win situations, whereby cyclists and the wider community benefit. For instance, lower speed limits result in more attractive conditions for cyclists, whilst at the same time increasing safety for all road users and improving neighbourhood amenity.

Safety

Surveys and focus group research reviewed for this report show safety concerns to be among the most significant barriers preventing people from cycling, including among those who cycle regularly.  Safety concerns were found to be amplified by aggressive motorist behaviour. Motor vehicle speed is both a perceived and actual safety hazard for vulnerable road users such as cyclists. An accident at 64km/h puts cyclists at 17 times the risk of a fatality than if the vehicle was travelling at 32km/h.

A combination of speed, volume of traffic and a lack of designated space for people to ride were found to be significant barriers to cycling. This was exacerbated by aggressive driving and features as a regularly reported deterrent to cycling.  These barriers can be reduced by implementing neighbourhood speed limits of between 30km/h to 40km/h, road user education and improved bicycle infrastructure.

The perception of risk from cycle accidents is often disproportionate to the actual risk. However, perceptions of risk were found to decrease with cycling experience. Whilst acknowledging the legitimate concerns people have to bicycle riding, the evidence demonstrates that in Australia, per 100,000 participants, an individual is seven times more likely to be hospitalised playing football than riding a bicycle. Risk-benefit analyses consistently report that the health benefits of cycling outweigh the risks by factors ranging from five to one, to 20 to one.  Another consistent feature in the literature is the robust finding that the more cyclists there are, the safer it becomes. In fact, if cycling doubles, the risk per kilometre falls by 34%.

3 Recommendations

This review has highlighted the need to overcome some significant barriers to further promote regular cycling among adult Australians. The following interventions are recommended to meet this challenge:

" Mass marketing campaigns

To promote the multiple health, environmental, transport, economic and social inclusion benefits of cycling, and address perceived barriers such as safety, required fitness level and road user behaviour.  These campaigns can be supported through the extensive network of cycling organisations around Australia and should be combined with bicycle infrastructure improvements.

" Bicycle education programs

To increase confidence and skill levels in both the child and adult population.

" Behaviour change programs

To help more Australian children and adults make the daily commute and other trips by pedal power.

" Cycling events

To encourage infrequent and novice riders to cycle in a supportive social environment.

" Urban design

To create a physical environment more conducive to cycling, such as higher density, mixed use development and shorter trip distances.

" Improved bicycle infrastructure

To provide safe, attractive and enjoyable on and off road bicycle routes as well as high quality end of trip facilities. The health sector can provide a powerful advocacy voice for inter-sectoral action to provide supportive environments for cycling.

" Funding

To better reflect the role and value of cycling in a range of areas including transport, health and sustainability, with support from all levels of government.  Australia currently faces a number of emerging health challenges, many of which are caused in part by increasingly sedentary lifestyles. 

Cycling is an effective method of helping to reduce sedentary lifestyle diseases such as cardiovascular disease, obesity and diabetes.  As Australians continue to lead increasingly busy lifestyles, cycling is in a unique position for its ability to enable people to integrate physical activity into everyday living. Active communities also have stronger social connections and improved liveability.

Cycling also offers a wide range of additional benefits when used as an alternative to the private automobile.  Cycling is a carbon neutral, petrol free form of transport, simultaneously helping Australians fight climate change and reduce fuel costs.  For peak hour journeys in particular, the bicycle can reduce congestion and increase the efficiency of the transport system.

Yet for all these important benefits to be realised, a number of challenges need to be overcome.  The health sector can play a key role in promoting this popular, but under-utilised form of physical activity.

1 Setting the Scene 1

1.1 The importance of physical activity and cycling to health 1

1.2 Cycling participation in Australia 3

1.3 Economic benefits of cycling participation 4

1.4 The Australian cycling sector 6

1.5 Current Australian interventions to encourage adult cycling 7

1.51 Cycling education and skills training 7

1.52 Community based programs 7

1.53 Social Marketing 8

1.54 Cycling Events 9

1.55 Recreational cycling events 10

2 Current barriers and facilitators to greater

cycling participation by Australian adults 11

2.1 Individual factors 11

2.2 Social and cultural factors 13

2.3 Environmental factors 13

2.31 Urban design 13

2.32 Bicycle infrastructure 15

2.4 Safety 18

2.5 Policy and Regulation 20

3 Recommendations 21

4 Conclusion 22

5 Appendices 23

6 References 32

Contents

1.1 The importance of physical activity and cycling to health

Approximately half of all Australian adults are not meeting even the modest current national recommendations that: “every adult should accumulate half an hour of moderate-intensity physical activity on at least 5 days per week” (Commonwealth Health National PA guidelines, 1999; United States Surgeon General, 1996; Haskell et al, 2007).

This lack of physical activity is a major contributor to Australia’s rising obesity levels.  Physical activity is an important part of overall health promotion and disease prevention. Physical inactivity ranks in the five leading risk factors of ill health, alongside tobacco use, obesity, high cholesterol levels and high blood pressure (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2006). In fact, given the interaction between physical inactivity and the latter four risk factors, reducing inactivity may indeed be the most important thing we can do for our health and wellbeing (Morris, 1994). Overall health and well being, quality of life, and reduced risk of morbidity and mortality are all dimensions of the benefits for adults achieving at least moderate-intensity physical activity on most days of the week (Haskell, 2007; United States Surgeon General, 1996; Bauman, 2004). The specific disease prevention benefits of being active include reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, some cancers, reduced diabetes risk, improved mental health, and reduced risk of falls in the elderly (WHO, 2000).

Beyond health specific benefits, it appears that physical activity is also linked to community well-being (Chau et al, 2007), social capital and community engagement. It has also been found to foster community participation in sport and recreation, encourage public transport usage, as well as promoting the use of community facilities, parks and recreational resources. Moreover, there are social, economic and environmental benefits to population level physical activity that go beyond the health benefits alone (Bauman, 2003). Being physically active has different benefits across the lifespan, from childhood participation in sports and games, through to maintaining functional status and social engagement among older adults.

Among older adults, physical activity will allow more tasks to be undertaken for daily living, for longer, such that even the older age groups will have greater functional independence (Bauman, 2004).  The overall relationship between physical activity and health is summarised in figure 1(top). This illustrates that the benefits of physical activity accrue most rapidly when moving from sedentarism to moderate levels of physical activity.  Encouraging even short, but regular bicycle journeys is an effective means of achieving significant health gains.

It is now acknowledged in the literature that the health benefits of physical activity are cumulative (Department of Health and Aged Care, 1999, cited in Milligan et al, 2007). In practical terms, this means three 10 minute cycle trips still provide sufficient levels of physical activity to protect against sedentary lifestyle diseases (WHO, 2000).  By contrast, public health researchers Frank et al (2004) have shown that each additional hour in a motor vehicle increases the chance of being obese by 6% - adjusting for socio-economic status.

There are a number of specific health and disease outcomes that are prevented by regular physical activity.

The epidemiological evidence for each of the major health conditions prevented by physical activity is summarised in table 1 (see following page). As a form of moderate-vigorous physical activity, cycling can contribute to the multiple health benefits of physical activity.

Cycling also has a number of additional benefits:

" As a low-impact form of physical activity, it appeals to people who cannot participate in high-impact activities

" As a form of active transport and recreation, it enables many people to combine physical activity with transport and recreation

" There is also evidence that the public generally prefer unstructured forms of physical activity (Hahn & Craythorn, 1994, cited in Sallis et al, 1998) and cycling certainly fits into this category

" It appeals to people across the age spectrum, from childhood to adults

" The promotion of ‘lifestyle’ physical activity such as walking and cycling is more cost-effective than promotion of structured exercise programs

" As a form of active transport, cycling contributes to the additional benefits associated with reduced car use (improved air quality, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, reduced noise pollution, improved community liveability and social connectedness).

In addition to the fact that cycling is beneficial to health, there is evidence that car commuting is associated with

The evidence reviewed in this report clearly points to the need for increased levels of physical activity, in order to combat the growing problems of obesity and diabetes, as well as other lifestyle diseases. Cycling is well suited to provide sufficient levels of physical activity to protect against the diseases of a sedentary lifestyle. It is able to do this at minimal cost to the individual and wider community and can act as a replacement for car journeys, especially for short trips and this has been shown to have additional health benefits.

Physical activity reduces the risks of ischaemic stroke (insufficient blood supply to the brain)

Physical activity reduces blood pressure by 3-5 mm (both systolic and diastolic), with a greater effect seen from moderate intensity physical activity (more than for vigorous physical activity); this has been shown in serial meta analyses of the research base (Kelley et al, 2001a; Kelley & Kelley, 2001; Kelley et al, 2001b).

Physical activity reduces the risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes in those at risk, shown through several population based prevention trials; in epidemiological studies, physical activity reduces the incidence of diabetes. In clinical studies, physical activity improves glucose uptake and insulin metabolism, providing biological mechanisms for these benefits. Similar mechanisms reduce the risk of chronic liver disease, as well as obesity, high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels.

Physical activity strengthens muscles, and improves joint stability and balance, and this reduces the risk of falls and fractures in the elderly. Physical activity could prevent up to 16% of these falls (Stephenson & Bauman, 2000), and these injuries, through fractured hips and related conditions are a very common cause of hospital admission and morbidity among older adults.

Physical activity reduces the risks of developing colon cancer by about 40% and the development of breast cancer, especially among post menopausal women. The amount of physical activity required may be 30-45 minutes daily, and moderate-vigorous activities are required. For cancer prevention, lifelong physical activity patterns may be important (whereas for other health benefits, recent physical activity participation is preventive). Other cancers, possibly prostate cancer, lung cancer and cancer of the uterus may also be prevented, in part, by physical activity, although the evidence is less clear here.

1 It may also be possible that those who transfer from bicycle to car travel have also experienced increased income. This may be a confounding factor, as it could be associated with increased dietary intake which may increase obesity levels. The authors did attempt to control for confounders measured in this study.

Source: Adapted from Bauman, 2004

1.2 Cycling participation in Australia

Australians have shown a strong inherent interest in cycling. Figures from Bicycle Industries Australia (2006) have shown a rapid increase in bicycle sales, with over 1.4 million sold in 2007, outnumbering new car sales for the eighth consecutive year. The rise in the number of Australians purchasing bicycles has been accompanied by an increase in cycling participation.  An analysis of the Australian Sports

Commission Exercise Recreation and Sport Survey (ERASS) reveals that cycling is Australia’s fourth most popular physical activity for adults.  Moreover, in terms of frequent participation, it is Australia’s third most popular physical activity, as demonstrated in table 2 below.

One of the strongest growth areas for cycling in recent years has been as a mode of transport to work (commuting). The latest Census data released by the ABS show Australian capital cities are experiencing an average increase of 22% between Census 2001 and 2006. Melbourne and Adelaide experienced the most rapid increase, at 42.57% and 31.25% respectively. It should be noted that the Census takes place in August, which is typically a less popular month for cycling than the warmer periods of the year.

This analysis of cycling participation in Australia demonstrates that Australians are both buying more bicycles than ever before and using them in increasing numbers. More Australians are using the bicycle to get to work and as a form of recreation, with the middle age groups reporting the highest participation levels.

The graph below presents the involvement of each adult age group in cycling – for both commuting and recreational purposes.

Table 2 Most frequent exercise, recreation and sport activities in Australia, 2006

Number of Participation Number of participants

Activity participants Rate (%) with a frequency of more than 104 times per year

walking                          6,001,700 36.2 3,615,900

aerobics                         3,161,300 19.1 1,307,700

swimming                     2,256,900 13.6 317,900

tennis                             1,130,700 6.8 43,600

running                         1,224,100 7.4 385,600

golf                                 1,132,000 6.8 84,400

bushwalking                    774,000 4.4 79,500

football (outdoor)           697,400 4.2 74,000

Source: Australian Sport Commission, 2006

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35 - 44 45 - 54 65+ 15 - 24 25 - 34 55 - 64

Recreational Cycling Commuter Cycling

Participation in Cycling by Age

Source: Australian Sports Commission

2005, ABS Census 2006.

Table 3 Bicycle Journeys to Work 2001 & 2006

2001 2006

No. of individuals No. of individuals % Change who cycled to work who cycled to work

Melbourne 14,443 20,592 42.57%

Adelaide 5,101 6,695 31.25%

Hobart 707 886 25.32%

Perth 6,218 7,240 16.44%

Canberra 3,505 4,062 15.89%

Brisbane 7,890 8,889 12.66%

Sydney 11,131 12,132 8.99%

Darwin 1,653 1,536 -7.08%

Source: ABS Census 2001 & 2006

1.3 Economic benefits of cycling participation

It is well recognised that cycling offers considerable benefits to the individual, in terms of improved health, reduced transport expenses and lifestyle enhancements.  Placing a value on current and potential cycling participation is challenging as there are a number of different methodologies used and the value varies depending on the profile of the person cycling in terms of their age and current physical activity levels and frequency and lengths of their cycling trips.

Nevertheless, attempting to determine the value of cycling participation is important for policy formation and decision making.

Government and the wider community benefit from cycling in the following ways:

" Increased physical activity levels, with subsequent reductions in health care costs.

" Reduced cost of transport ‘externalities’.

Externalities are the costs imposed on non-users or those not directly met by the user. These include air and noise pollution, road traffic injuries, congestion and climate change.

This report brings together different sources of evidence to quantify, in monetary terms, the value of current cycling participation.

Health Benefits of Leisure Cycling

The health benefits generated by cycling are drawn from the seven key medical conditions that are considered to have a strong causal relationship with physical inactivity.  According to a recent study (Econtech, 2007) the direct gross cost of physical inactivity to the Australian health budget in 2006/07 was $1.49 billion.  The value attributable to physical inactivity is based on an estimated prevalence of 54.2% of the population between 18 and 75 years of age classified as inactive. Based on this calculation, the cost of each inactive adult person to the health budget is $198.57 per year.

To gain health benefits from physical activity, participation has to be regular and of moderate intensity.  These benefits are gained from both recreational and commuter cycling.  The benefits of recreational cycling have been simplified for this report to only include the positive health effects of physical activity.

In 2006, over 1.68 million Australians cycled for recreation and of those 417,400 cycled more than 104 times a year (ERASS, 2006). These individuals can be classified as meeting the levels of physical activity to protect against sedentary lifestyle diseases from cycling alone.

Using the Econtech (2007) calculation, the savings to the health budget from regular recreational cycling in 2006 is estimated at $82.9 million.

Benefits of Commuter Cycling

The benefits of commuter cycling include both the positive impact on public health, as well as the reduction in the ‘externalities’ of transport, such as reduced air and noise pollution, congestion and climate change mitigation. It should be noted that a significant amount of additional transport-based cycling occurs (visiting friends, shops etc…), but are not collected by the Census and for reasons of consistency are not included in these calculations.

According to the Australian Greenhouse Office (2006), around 66% of personal transport is for non-commuting purposes.  Commuter cycling offers an important opportunity for the Australian workforce to get much needed physical activity.  Sports Medicine Australia (2007) found that the modern lifestyle can act as barrier to physical activity.  Cycling to and from work helps to counter increasingly sedentary behaviours and the negative health outcomes associated with them.

The number of people who cycle to work in Australian cities has increased markedly between Census 2001 and 2006 (rising 22% on average).  The primary aim of this analysis is to estimate the value of the current bicycle commuting trips in Australia based on the 2006 Census. 

Cyclists currently save the economy -

*        $63.9 million per year in reduced congestion costs; and

*        $72.1 million in reduced health costs. 

Based on the information presented in tables 4 and 5, the economic benefit of commuter cycling is $144.3 million per year.

For additional information, including the assumptions upon which the above calculations are based, see Appendix 2. 

Potential for improved road safety through the reduction in car use  Road trauma in Australia costs $17 billion a year. This is equal to 2.3% of Australia's gross domestic product

(Centre of National Research on Disability and Rehabilitation Medicine, 2006). There is increasing evidence that higher levels of motor vehicle use increase the risk of road trauma.  Strategies that provide non-motorised transport options are increasingly recognised as an effective road safety strategy (Litman & Fitzroy, 2005).  In fact, policies aimed at reducing car use typically result in around a 10% reduction in vehicle kilometres travelled and this could cut road trauma costs by between $850 million and $1.7 billion per year (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2007).

The authors note that research on the economic benefits of current and future cycling participation is limited in Australia. Further research is required to gain a clearer understanding of these benefits, in order to inform public policy.

2 inactive is classified as not reaching the minimum level of physical activity levels recommended for health benefits which is 30 minutes of moderate physical activity levels over at least 5 sessions a week 3 Based on 2006 Census population aged between 18 to 75 years 4 According to a comprehensive survey (n+1,530) people cycling for recreation cycled an average 2.5 times a week and the average trip was 1hr 46 minutes (Garrard J., Crawford S., Hakman N., 2006)

Coronary Health Disease                                 $ 371.5 million

Stroke                                                                 $ 162.4 million

Type 2 diabetes                                                 $ 210.7 million

Breast cancer                                                     $ 42.2 million

Colon cancer                                                     $ 61.4 million

Depression Symptoms                                     $ 177.3 million

Falls                                                                     $468.7 million

Total Gross Costs                                        $ 1,494.4 million

Source: Econtech, 2007

Table 4 Bicycle Commuting Travel (Capital Cities)

Bicycle Commuters (sole mode trips only) Kilometres/Year

2001 Census 2006 Census % Change 2001 Census 2006 Census Change

Sydney 8,684 10,175 17.2% 30,394,000 35,612,500 5,218,500

Melbourne 12,179 18,047 48.2% 42,626,500 63,164,500 20,538,000

Brisbane 6,347 7,502 18.2% 22,214,500 26,257,000 4,042,500

Adelaide 4,376 6,085 39.1% 15,316,000 21,297,500 5,981,500

Perth 5,179 6,323 22.1% 18,126,500 22,130,500 4,004,000

Hobart 622 810 30.2% 2,177,000 2,835,000 658,000

Canberra 3,093 3,763 21.7% 10,825,500 13,170,500 2,345,000

Darwin 1,498 1,407 -6.1% 5,243,000 4,924,500 -318,500

TOTAL 41,978 54,112 28.9% 146,923,000 189,392,000 42,469,000

Source: ABS Census 2001 and 2006.

Table 5 Benefit Analysis of Commuter Cycling

$127 million

$909 million

$982 million

$1,527 million to $2,018 million

$0.0599/car-km

$0.125 - $0.666/car-km (peak)**

$0.033 - $0.177/carkm (off-peak)**

depending on city

$0.376/cycle-km

(mortality plus morbidity)

Benefit

Externalities

Congestion

Health and fitness

TOTAL Capital Cities

Item Value per km (2006)* Total value (2006)*

Present Value

(25 years @ 6% per annum***

discount rate)*

$9.2 million

$63.9 million

$71.2 million

$144.3 million

* Valued at resource costs (ie net of indirect taxes – GST and Fuel Excise)

** Subject to escalation of fuel cost component in line with progressive increase in real cost of petrol to $2/litre by 2016

*** Most jurisdictions use a higher discount rate that broadly reflects the market rate of interest. However, the market rate of

interest includes inflation expectations that are specifically excluded from this assessment. The Australian Transport

Commission (2006a) recommends using it as the long term government bond rate, which is currently around 6%.

For additional information, including the assumptions upon which the above calculations are based, see Appendix 2.

Table 6 State-based bicycle organisations

Cycling events, behaviour change programs (Ride2Work, Ride2School), Community cycling events, behaviour change programs (Ride2work, Ride2School), bicycle maintenance courses

Cycling events, women’s ride, bike safety for kids, bicycle maintenance courses, leisure rides, film night, Ride2School challenge, Ride2Work and Ride2School

Cycling events, bicycle maintenance, skills training, Ride2Work and Ride2School, programs for disadvantaged kids

Cycling events and regular ride, Bike Week Cycling events, weekly recreational rides, primary school programs, Ride2Work, women training program

Bicycle maintenance and skills classes

Information, resources, insurance, events, advocacy, consultancy services, bicycle parking Information, resources, insurance, events, advocacy, consultancy services, ride leadership training Information, resources, insurance, events, advocacy, bike week, information sessions

Information, resources, insurance, events, advocacy, bike hire scheme, bicycle maintenance

Information, resources, insurance, advocacy

Information, resources, advocacy, insurance, skills courses

Information, resources, insurance, advocacy

Bicycle Victoria

Bicycle NSW

Bicycle Queensland

Bicycle South Australia

Bicycle Tasmania

Pedal Power (ACT)

Bicycle Transport Alliance (WA)

Organisation Members Services offered Staff Volunteers Programs/Events

40,000

10,000

5,000

3,000

250

1600

500

100

120

200

20

50

20

35

10

5

5

0

2

1

1.4 The Australian cycling sector

The Australian cycling sector is made up of an active and diverse range of recreation, advocacy and sporting organisations. In general, they have been very effective in providing cycling events and services to the Australian community for over three decades. For instance, between 1994 and 2004, Bicycle Victoria organised rides totalling 208,244 participants (Garrard et al, 2005). Promoting physical activity to this large group would be very costly for the health sector. These cycling organisations are constrained by a lack of resources to further promote cycling.  Strategically targeted funding from the health sector could result in substantial leveraged benefits to the community.  Moreover, it would provide the opportunity to prioritise disadvantaged or under represented groups, as this is something largely outside of the cycling sector’s current scope.

Local Bicycle User Groups (BUGs)

Australia has approximately 100 local BUGs which vary in size, focus and activities. They share a common desire to promote cycling and a commitment to develop a bicycle friendly Australia.  According to a survey undertaken on behalf of the Cycling Promotion Fund, BUGs have an estimated membership of around 20,000. The majority of members are between 25 and 55 years old and cycle for recreation and commuting.  Some 60% of BUGs surveyed organise regular rides with the majority less than 30km long.  Most BUGs are affiliated with their state cycling organisation and regular rides are promoted through websites and ride calendars.  Some state cycling organisations offer ride leader training and insurance cover for BUGs.  South Australia and NSW offer the most extensive BUG cycling calendar with regular rides most days of the week.

The majority of rides are free and open to anyone, not just members.  Many BUGs also work with their local councils to provide input on bicycle plans and infrastructure and lobby councils and other agencies for better bicycle facilities.  Local BUGs are run solely by volunteers and they provide an excellent grassroots service to members and the general community.

They have a wealth of knowledge of local cycling facilities, are keen to share tips on cycling and provide valuable community based opportunities for people to ride regularly through social support and encouragement.  The survey highlighted that there is considerable potential to strengthen these valuable grassroots organisations by offering training, support and resources.

Cycling Australia

Cycling Australia is the peak body for the sport of cycling in Australia, with the aim of developing and promoting competitive cycling in Australia. Its main income is from the Australian Sports Commission and Australian Commonwealth and Olympic Games Grants and Athletes with disability grants.

Cycling Australia has affiliated state groups which together with local clubs have an overall membership of 12,000.

There are 436 accredited coaches (most are volunteers).  Cycling Australia and its affiliated organisations have expanded their regular competition program to include a recreation/skills/ participation program which includes Full Cycle, Skill Cycle and J Cycle offering a pathway to competitive cycling.  The regular competition events and skill programs are delivered through its state and local affiliated member groups.

Mountain Bike Australia (MTBA)

The objective of MTBA is to develop and promote mountain biking in Australia for the benefit and enjoyment of all members. MTBA has 4,200 members from 100 clubs around Australia and is affiliated with Cycling Australia. Clubs organise regular events and competitions and recorded 15,000 participants in 2006.

Participation in mountain bike events has increased considerably, with some events attracting in excess of 1,000 riders. In 2006, clubs in Queensland attracted over 6,300 participants.

1.5 Current Australian interventions to encourage adult cycling

This section covers a range of current interventions used to promote and encourage cycling including education/cycling skills training, multifaceted community based programs, social marketing campaigns and cycling events. Interventions focused on creating supportive physical environments, policies and regulations are covered in section two of this report.

Lack of confidence and skills have been identified as barriers to cycling (discussed in Section 2.1), particularly for people who do not currently cycle.

In response, a range of cycling education/skills training programs have been set up.

An evaluation undertaken by the Bicycle Federation of Australia on behalf of the Australian Greenhouse Office on Best Practice in Adult Cycling Proficiency Training (Bicycle Federation of Australia, 2006) indicated that Australia has a number of agencies currently offering cycling skills courses.

This includes a broad range of stakeholders, such as non-government organisations, councils, cycling organisations, employers, bicycle retailers and independent training providers. Many target new and inexperienced riders. The survey highlighted that current cycling proficiency classes are effective in increasing skills and improving confidence but many lack formal evaluations, effective marketing and accreditation. Current availability was also found to be limited.

Most cycling education programs are delivered in group settings either at a community level or in a workplace setting. Evidence suggests that more women participate in cycling education programs (Garrard et al, 2006).

A recent review identified few rigorous evaluations of cycling skills programs for adults in Australia (Rissel & Garrard, 2006). Those that have been evaluated show that cycling education and skills training programs are effective in assisting people to gain the skills and confidence needed to cycle.

In 2003 the Health Promotion Unit of the Central Sydney Area Health Service set up a pilot cycling proficiency training program for adults.

The focus of the program was to provide practical skills and supervised training on bicycle paths and on-road.  The aim of the intervention was to increase the number of people cycling, the frequency of cycling and the use of bicycles for transport. The program was designed for adults with low to moderate-level skills and confidence in cycling. From the 113 people starting the program, 72% completed at least one course and 93% took part in the pre-program and follow up interviews.

Participants’ satisfaction with all aspects of the course was very high and the course led to a significant increase in participants’ self-reported skills and confidence in cycling (Telfer et al, 2006).

Community based cycling programs provide locally based interventions focussing on promoting cycling for health and/or transport. Programs offer information, incentives and/or the development of social networks (eg group recreational or training rides, buddy system for ride to work) that provide supportive structures to maintain behaviour change.

Most community based cycling programs are delivered in a group setting at a community or workplace level. The TravelSmart Communities program (see below for further details) is an individualised social marketing program focusing on individual behaviour change.

The evaluation of the Cycling 100 program (see below for further details) indicated that participants’ physical work capacity improved, and cholesterol and coronary risk ratio decreased (Marshall, 2001).

In the town of Vincent in Western Australia, the TravelSmart Communities project achieved a 9% reduction in single occupant car use and an increase in cycling of 30%, with walking trips rising 22% and public transport up 11% (Social Data, 2005).  More details of these and related programs are provided in the case studies following.

Many non-commuter cyclists report a lack of confidence and awareness of bicycle friendly routes as major reasons for not riding to work. Bike Bus is an initiative aimed at addressing both these issues. Piloted in Sydney to encourage cycling for work journeys, each weekday morning, the ‘bus’ cycles a set timetabled route through Sydney’s suburbs to the Central Business District. It picks people up along the way, in a similar manner to a regular bus.

Bike Bus has grown substantially, and there are now four routes. Bike Bus participants report a significant increase in their level of comfort, with each route designed to maximise the use of quieter streets. Riding in a group helps develop confidence, and provides support for those not experienced at riding in peak hour. The pilot program is funded in part by the Department of Environment and Water Resources and the Cycling Promotion Fund.

More information, including a YouTube Video of the Bike Bus in action can be found at http://www.bikebus.org.au/

In 2000/01 Cycle 100 was developed with the objective of providing incentives for people to replace some of their car trips to work by bicycle, for health and environmental reasons. The trial program involved 100 people (average age 39 years) who lived between 10 to 15 km of their workplace. Participants were provided with a mountain bike equipped with lights, lock, cycle computer and helmet. As a result of the program, participants replaced over 12,000 kilometres of car commuting with cycling. The evaluation demonstrated that new riders gained significant health improvements as a result of the program (Marshall, 2001).

In 2007 the Public Transport Authority in Western Australia adapted the Cycle 100 program, to increase the level of physical activity of train drivers. Train drivers, due to the sedentary nature of their work, are at a higher risk of developing lifestyle diseases and this program focuses on integrating bicycle riding into their daily routine.

Participants agreeing to ride 60km each week for the duration of the 6-month program were provided with a free bicycle and accessories.

Cycle 100 proved very popular, with 160 participants signing up and 90% completing the program. Each participant underwent a medical examination before and after the program and the results showed significant improvements in both physiological and mental health. The program is intended to continue to provide benefits well beyond the 6-month period considered indicative of sustained behaviour change (Orleans, 2000).

Communities

TravelSmart is an established program aimed at encouraging people to reduce the number of trips taken by car, and increase the number of trips using sustainable transport modes. This is done through the use of information and marketing tools focused on walking, cycling, public transport, car pooling and telecommuting.

TravelSmart directs its effort towards

people with an identified willingness to

consider ways of reducing their car

use, as behaviour change programs

have been shown to be more effective

in populations already contemplating a

change in their lifestyle (Milligan et al,

2007). TravelSmart has been operating

since 2001 and has developed a

comprehensive range of tools to assist

individuals to make smarter travel

choices. This can include personalised

visits, targeted information packs,

including public transport time-tables,

cycle maps and bicycle maintenance/

riding skills classes. Programs are

funded by all levels of government but

currently reach only a very small

proportion of the community.

Social Marketing

Coordinated social marketing

campaigns are designed to motivate

people to be more active through

cycling, by raising awareness of the

benefits of bicycle riding.

Large scale community wide

campaigns with messages directed to

a large audience through different types

of media including television, radio,

newspapers, mailings, and events.

Messages highlighting health, fitness

and family interaction are effective

motivators in the promotion of cycling.

Evaluation of the Cycle Instead

campaign in Perth indicated that the

majority of people exposed to the

campaign correctly interpreted the

main messages and for whom they

were designed. The evaluation found

significant increases in cycling behaviour,

intentions to cycle and intentions to

purchase a bicycle (Greig, 2001).

Figure 4 Cycle 100 participants

Photo: Public Transport Authority

Figure 3 The Bike Bus in Newtown, Sydney

increases in the proportion of

respondents who had cycled in the

previous six months (29% vs 36%).

This was backed up by bicycle counts,

which recorded increases in cycling by

up to 65% across the Perth Bicycle

Network (ARRB, 2000). Further details

of the Cycle Instead campaign are

provided in the case study below.

Case Study

Cycle Instead campaign

The Western Australian Government

developed a cycling promotion

campaign, Cycle Instead, using a social

marketing approach. Extensive research

was undertaken prior to the development

of the promotion strategy, through

surveys and focus group discussions.

This identified that the prime

motivators that influence cycling are

centred on the individual. While the

campaign was promoting cycling as a

mode of transport, it was clear that the

most persuasive way of doing so was

to promote the health and fitness

aspects of cycling. Two 30 second

television commercials were developed

to reflect the main motivators of cycling

- fitness for women, and spending time

with children for men. These

commercials were shown for four

weeks with modest exposure levels

(average 300 Target Audience Rating

Points (TARPS) per week) and were

run in conjunction with a range of

supporting activities and media

about the benefits of cycling with

frequently asked questions.

Additionally a range of newspaper

advertisements were developed, and

bicycle retailers engaged to enable

them to capitalise on the campaign.

Cycling Events

Cycling events provide a range of opportunities for people of most ages and fitness levels to be physically active.  Australia offers a wide variety of cycling events from small community based events with less than 100 participants and short distances, to large more challenging events with more than 14,000 riders. Organisers of cycling events include bicycle recreation/advocacy organisations, charities, cycling clubs and private event operators. Most cycling events promote cycling as a healthy physical and/or sporting activity, while others such as Ride 2 Work and Beyond promote cycling as a practical and healthy transport option. Some event organisers provide people with interactive multimedia resources with training tips to enable them to improve their fitness and skills levels.

Cycling events attract people of all age groups and socio economic backgrounds (Godbold, 2005; Bowles et al, 2006; Cycling Promotion Fund, 2005). Event organisers are increasingly offering a range of distances to cater for a variety of fitness and skill levels. A small number of cycling events are for females only, to encourage more women to participate. The Ride 2 Work and Beyond program targets people travelling to work through workplaces.

A number of evaluations have highlighted the effectiveness of cycling events in encouraging people to increase their physical activity levels through bicycle riding. Ride 2 Work and Beyond has become Australia’s largest cycling event and has been effective not only in encouraging people to cycle on the day but also to maintain their behaviour after the event  (Bicycle Victoria, 2007).

Recreational cycling events provide incentives for people to increase their physical activity levels in preparation for the event, and have also been effective in increasing participants’ cycling participation after the event (Godbold, 2005; Bowles et al, 2006; Cycling

Promotion Fund, 2005). Additionally, cycling events are also effective in encouraging social connections and team building with many events providing incentives for team entries, and a high proportion of participants citing social interaction as a motive for participation (Godbold, 2005).

Case Study

Ride to Work Day

Journeys to work are principally made

by private motor vehicle in Australia

(ABS, 2006b).

Riding to work is increasingly

recognised as a healthy, sustainable

and cost effective method of

commuting.

Ride to Work Day commenced in Victoria

2007 and attracted around 90,000

people, making it Australia’s largest

cycling event and one of the biggest

work place events in the country.

Ride to Work Day has been running

in Australia since 1993 (originating

in Victoria)

In 2007, there were 29,000 registered

riders – up from 10,181 in 2006

26% of registered riders were

riding to work for the first time

Actual number of riders in 2007

was estimated at 90,000

Participants have increased more

than 5 fold since 2002.

In 2007 there were almost 3000

registered workplaces

In 2006, 63% of registered riders

were men and 37% women.

In 2006, for 25% of registered participants,

it was the first time they had ridden to

work that year. Over 60% said they

usually travel to work by car.

In both 2004 and 2006, 27% of first-time

riders were still riding 5 months later.

Source Bicycle Victoria, 2006; Bicycle Victoria, 2007

The Ride to Work Day event also

recruits individual workplace

coordinators to strengthen their

capacity to provide ongoing support,

information and incentives for

colleagues. This helps to maintain the

in ensuring that people maintain their

behaviour in the long term.

See appendices 3 – 6 for more

information on Ride to Work Day.

Recreational cycling events

Recreational cycling events have seen

substantial increases in participation

around Australia. The top 10 cycling

participation events are organised

by membership based cycling

organisations and charities.

In 2007, 55,000 people took part in

the top 10 cycling events around

Australia (Table 7).

These cycling events are more than

one-off events in terms of physical

activity participation. Pre and post event

surveys indicate that participants

increase their physical activity levels in

preparation for the events. While activity

levels may drop after the event, they

remain above the levels reported by

participants before they commenced

training for the event (Godbold, 2005).

A number of interventions have been

developed to increase cycling

participation in Australia. These include

efforts to increase bicycle riding

knowledge and skills through the

provision of cycling classes. In addition,

the development of individualised and

mass campaigns promoting the

benefits of cycling have encouraged

more people to take it up, as either a

recreational or transport option (or both).

Other programs focus on the provision

of bicycles and/or the creation of a

supportive social environment for

cycling and this too has been

successful in boosting cycling levels.

Table 7 Cycling events

550 km 9 days

500 km 9 days

500k m 9 days

500 km 9 days

50 km to 240 km 1 day

100 km 1 day

84 km to 128 km 1 day

Bicycle Victoria

Bicycle QLD

Bicycle NSW

Bicycle SA

Bicycle Victoria

Bicycle QLD

Bicycle SA & SA Tourism

Great Victorian Bike Ride 2007

Cycle QLD 2007

NSW Big Ride 2007

Annual Tour 2007

Portfolio Partners Around

the Bay in a Day 2007

Wilson HTM Brisbane to the

Gold Coast Cycle Challenge 2007

Mutual Community Challenge 2007

Cycling Event Organiser Participants Length

3,700

1,000

1,000

200

14,000

5,700

2,700

City of Sydney Spring Cycle 2007 Bicycle NSW 8,500 5 km to 50 km 1 day

Freeway Bike Hike 2007 Asthma Foundation WA 7,015 10 km to 30 km 1 day

MS Society NSW 56 km & 90 km 1 day

Although cycling is an increasingly popular activity in Australia, a number of significant barriers need to be addressed before it can be adopted by a wider section of the Australian community. Women in particular are under-represented in Australia (see appendix 11) and there are some important barriers that prevent women from taking up cycling in a manner more representative of their proportion of the population and these will be discussed below. The various barriers and motivations discussed will differ, depending on each individual’s circumstance.  Non-riders may typically place a larger emphasis on personal factors and the physical environment, whereas regular riders might flag socio-political issues, such as the underlying basis of modal priorities (motorised over non motorised) as important factors (Daley et al, 2007).

2.1 Individual factors

Health-related

Poor health is potentially a barrier to many forms of physical activity, including cycling. Around 10% of the population are physically unable to ride a regular bicycle due to disability (Rissel & Garrard, 2006) and this proportion grows with increasing age (Australian Institute for Health & Welfare, 2003).

Extensive research regarding the influences on physical activity has identified numerous individual factors that affect participation:

" confidence

" motivation

" knowledge, skills, beliefs and attitudes

" time and opportunity

" perceived benefits and barriers

" enjoyment

Confidence

Bandura (1997) demonstrated that confidence is a very important requirement in order for people to take up new activities such as cycling. This is supported by recent Western Australian research that found a lack of confidence features as a major reason for individuals choosing not to take up physical activities (Milligan et al, 2007).  They found 34% of inactive adults described themselves as ‘not at all confident’ (p.46). Cycling is an activity that requires greater confidence than many other forms of physical activity – as it frequently involves interaction with motor vehicles and a variety of road surfaces.

Some styles of pedalled vehicles (eg recumbents) are suitable for use by people with poor health or with a disability. Moreover, as a low-impact form of physical activity, cycling appeals to individuals who cannot participate in high impact activities. The ‘need to swap to a low impact activity’ was reported to be an ‘important’ or ‘very important’ reason for commencing cycling (Garrard et al, 2006). Photo: Greenspeed

5 Australia’s per capita sales of bicycles is one of the highest in the world (Bicycle Industries Australia 2005); a NSW survey indicated that 65% of people owning a bicycle wanted to ride more (Rissel C., New C., Pham S., Bindon J., 2008)

Motivations

A wide range of surveys have consistently found that motivations for cycling tend to be focused on the individual. Central to this is the desire to improve or maintain personal health and fitness (Garrard et al, 2006; Greig, 2007). In a large scale mass marketing campaign, pre intervention focus groups reported the desire to exercise four times more frequently than the next most common reason for choosing to cycle. Other motivations focused on the individual include stress reduction, social interaction and exercising with the family.

Knowledge and Skills

The survey of 2403 cyclists by Garrard et al (2006) identified the following knowledge/skills barriers to greater levels of cycling:

" lack of knowledge of local cycling routes, the road rules that apply to cyclists, and the most appropriate bicycle to purchase.

" lack of cycling skill in regards to operating a bicycle, cycling in traffic, cycling in a group, and bicycle maintenance.

" concerns that you need to be fit to ride a bicycle, that the terrain needs to be flat, the weather fine, and the distance short (many of these perceptions and concerns are reduced with cycling experience).

Daley et al (2007) found that occasional riders studied in Sydney identified that a lack of knowledge about bicycle routes and basic mechanical issues was a deterrent to regular riding.

Time and opportunities

Lack of time is a commonly reported constraint on all forms of physical activity, including cycling (Trost et al, 2002).

Perceived social norms

Rose’s (1992) population-based theory of health improvement demonstrates that social and cultural norms shape individual behaviour, which in turn influences health risk factors and health outcomes at a population level.  In Australia’s car-oriented culture, the perceived norm is that most people think it is acceptable to always travel by car, regardless of distance (Hinde & Dixon, 2005; Woodward et al, 2002).

This becomes normal, habitual behaviour that results in many short trips being undertaken by automobile. In Australian capital cities, 52% of car journeys are under 5km and 38% are under 3km (Austroads, 2005; RMIT, 1999). These distances are easily covered by bicycle.

The fitness image of cyclists, such as the wearing of lycra can act as a barrier to bicycle riding (Greig, 2001).

The evidence reviewed for this report demonstrates that there are a number of important individual factors that can act as a barrier to cycling. A lack of confidence, knowledge and riding skills have all been shown to reduce cycle participation. Interestingly, although a lack of time presents in the literature as a barrier to physical activity, cycling is in a unique position, in that it can be combined with transport, which means that in many cases, it can actually save time.

Bicycle skills training is an effective way of boosting confidence for those new to cycling (Telfer et al, 2006). The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (2001) found that cycle training increases individuals’ propensity to cycle and reduces the chance of being involved in an accident (cited in Telfer et al, 2006).

Local Bicycle User Groups (BUGs) are able to provide social support for those looking to ride with others.

Mass marketing campaigns to encourage cycling should focus on the key motivations associated with cycling:

" Personal health and fitness

" Social interaction

" Cut fuel costs

They should also address the negative perceptions of cycling:

" cycling is too dangerous

" you need to be very fit

" it’s only something you do if you cannot drive a car

Provide well publicised information packs on cycling that includes details of:

" recent bicycle route improvements in the local area

" cycle route maps

" the personal and community benefits of cycling

" bicycle skills training classes available

" a contact list of local, state and national cycling organisations

" cycle awareness tips for motorists (road safety)

Develop a mass marketing campaign to highlight that cycling can be the perfect way for busy people to keep active, as it combines physical activity with transport and/or active recreation. In many cases it can be time equivalent to other transport modes and at times, the fastest way to get from A to B.

People frequently overestimate how long a trip takes by bicycle and underestimate the time required to undertake a journey by car (Tranter, 2004). As Australians try to fit more into their day, cycling offers an elegant solution for an increasingly time poor society by combining the need for transport and physical activity.  Many perceived physical barriers to cycling, such as poor weather and distance to destination are actually perceptual barriers that modify when people start riding (Rissel et al, 2002; Garrard et al, 2006).

2.2 Social and cultural factors

Cultural values and norms include systems of belief and codes of behaviour that shape the structure of society. These systems of belief, many of which are unstated or unconscious, influence behaviour in subtle ways.  They can be difficult to identify, challenge or change. Nevertheless, successful public health strategies demonstrate that health enhancing changes in community attitudes are possible (eg tobacco control, drink-driving, bullying, and violence against women). This section describes some of the social and cultural factors that constrain cycling.

Figure 8 The effects of ever-increasing car use on walking and cycling to school

Source: Dora and Phillips, 2000

Socio-economic status and cycling

Lower socio-economic groups participate less in physical activity

(Kavanagh et al, 2007; WHO, 2006; Dowler, 2001; World Health Organisation, 2004; Wardle & Steptoe, 2003; Coggins et al, 1999; Milligan et al, 2007).

Several studies have investigated the

specific barriers experienced by low

income groups to physical activity. The

following factors were found to act as

greater barriers to physical activity in

low income areas than for higher

income groups:

" Reduced access to supportive

physical environments (Popkin et

al, 2005; Estabrooks et al, 2003;

Kavanagh, 2007).

" Lower financial capacity to pay for

various activities (Sobal &

Stunkard, 1989).

In a sample of 3361 adults from

Western Australia, Milligan et al (2007)

found obesity and inactivity were

disproportionately high in those with

low levels of education, the unemployed

and the retired. Similarly, they found

the propensity to undertake short walks

or bicycle trips rather than car journeys

increases with education level. The

encouragement of cycling in populations

of economic and educational

disadvantage is therefore particularly

pertinent. The promotion of more

regular utilitarian cycling may help

reduce the socio-economic differential

in physical activity. A ‘whole of

community’ childhood obesity

prevention program in Colac, Victoria

(Be Active, Eat Well) successfully

reduced Body Mass Index relative to

the control group. The program

included a component on bicycle

education and promotion, especially

cycling to school. The results

demonstrated a flattening of the

gradient between socio-economic

group and Body Mass Index

(Sanigorski et al, 2007).

Recent evidence suggests that, in the

US, ‘lifestyle’ physical activity (eg

utilitarian walking and cycling) does not

show the marked social gradient

evident for leisure-time physical activity

(Berrigan et al, 2006). Participation in

cycling is a low cost activity and has

the potential to actually save money if

used to replace some car journeys

(Tranter, 2004).

Social norms governing behaviour

have tended to favour motorised travel

over active transport, even for journeys

short enough to be completed by

bicycle. A paradoxical situation was

found to exist whereby low income

areas are less conducive to the most

affordable and physically active forms

of transport and recreation, such as

cycling. Yet in comparison to other

forms of physically active leisure,

bicycle riding was found to display a

more level social gradient. In order to

allow Australians of all social and

cultural backgrounds to live a healthy

lifestyle, it is necessary to provide an

environment supportive of cycling.

2.3 Environmental factors

The constructed environment…

often seems intentionally designed

by human beings to impose barriers

to physical activity

Environmental influences on physical

activity, including cycling are welldocumented.

Community

characteristics such as urban density,

road and street design, housing type,

accessibility to and connectivity of

bicycle paths, lanes and trails, and

location of community services all play

a substantial role in promoting or

discouraging cycling (Giles-Corti et al,

2005; Newman & Kenworthy, 1999;

Handy, 2004). The following section on

the physical environment’s influence on

cycling and health is divided into urban

design and bicycle infrastructure,

although it should be noted that there

is considerable overlap.

Urban design

Public health researchers studying the link between environment and health have found that land-use mix has a strong association with obesity. Frank et al (2004) found in their study of over 10,000 people that each quartile increase in land use mix is associated with a 12.2% reduction in the likelihood of obesity across sex and ethnic groups.

Develop bicycle friendly infrastructure initiatives in areas of low socio-economic areas to ensure they have the same level of access to cycling facilities as higher income groups.

Ensure new housing developments have cycle lanes integrated into their design from the planning stage.

quality of public space and levels of walking and cycling (Research Australia, 2007). Figure 9 (below) offers a good illustration of the sort of conditions that have been found to promote active transport, whilst figure 10 (below) is an example of poor amenity, which act as a barrier to active transport.

“ We know there’s a lot of evidence that people aren’t healthy and aren’t getting healthier and yet, up until recently, most of the focus was on health promotion campaigns focusing on the individual.  There’s no point telling people to cycle more if their environment is so unfriendly they can’t”

A recent report commissioned by the Western Australian Government (Milligan et al, 2007) cited extensive research (Hill & Peters, 1998; French et al, 2001; Swinburn et al, 1999) demonstrating that ‘obesogenic’ environments are acting as barriers to physical activity, with corresponding increases in obesity.

This is supported by a major study of the effects of land use and transport policy in Atlanta, United States. The research team found that residents of suburbs with better active transport options drive less, are more physically active and less likely to be overweight or obese (Frank et al, 2007).  Importantly, these results take into account self-selection. Self-selection relates to the possibility that the residents with a predisposition to physical activity chose to live in a particular area because it had good active transport options. Self-selection was taken into account by investigating the behaviours of people that did not live in their preferred neighbourhood type. Frank et al (2007) found that the residents with the most favourable environment for walking and cycling were 2.4 times as likely to undertake the 30 minutes of physical activity suggested by the United States Surgeon General (1996). In fact, the youth surveyed living within a kilometre of a recreational space, such as a bicycle path, or a retail destination were around 2.5 times more likely to report undertaking active transport (walking or cycling).

It should be noted that in many of these studies walking is more frequently undertaken than cycling and that walkability is the more commonly assessed item (rather than bikeability).  Finally, the number of cars per household was found to be inversely proportional to physical activity levels.

To assess the influence of the physical environment on cycle participation, Pucher & Buehler (2006) examined why it is that Canadians ride to work three times more frequently than residents of the United States. They found that Canada’s higher density and land use mix reduces trip distance (and superior bicycle infrastructure) encourages cycling.  The cost of car ownership and usage is also higher in Canada and this was found to encourage active forms of transport. Canada’s cooler climate was a less important determinant of cycling.  Another Canadian study found that the development of a comprehensive and connected network of local roads and pathways encourages a higher level of commuter cycling (Aultman-Hall et al, 1997).

End-of-trip facilities

End of trip facilities, as their name suggests, refer to the provision of facilities designed to improve cyclists amenity at their destination. Secure bicycle parking is a basic minimum and may include the following additional facilities:

" Showers

" Lockers

" Change rooms

" Laundry facilities

" Bicycle repair

Removing barriers to physically active transport can be achieved, for example, by providing adequate infrastructure for cycling and walking, reducing speed limits in environments where vulnerable road users mix with motorised transport, reallocating space to cyclists and pedestrians and working with urban planners to ensure that services, jobs and amenities are situated within distances that can be conveniently covered on foot or by bicycle  Source: WHO, 2006, p. 22

Encourage a diverse range of land use practices, by mixing residential, retail and office space. By boosting the density of urban areas and regional centres, trip distance can be reduced and this encourages active forms of transport.  Plan for active transport infrastructure in new suburbs – it is cheaper and more effective than retrofitting.

Encourage the introduction of legislation to require developments to include end of trip facilities for cyclists. See appendix 12 for further information.

Photo: Billie Giles-Corti, University of Western Australia

Figure 11 Public space is where most physical activity occurs for both sexes

Source: Milligan et al, 2007

Photo: Elliot Fishman

A lack of end of trip facilities has been highlighted as a significant barrier to cycling, especially for journeys to work (Mellifont, 2001) and this finding was supported by a qualitative analysis of the needs of cyclists, using a sample of riders and non-riders (Daley et al, 2007). Conversely, the provision of workplace car parking has been found to decrease the likelihood of commuting by bicycle (Mobilität in der Schweiz, 2001, cited in WHO, 2006).

Bicycle infrastructure

A lack of bicycle infrastructure is regularly reported to be a major barrier to increase cycling participation in Australia (Garrard et al, 2006; Daley et al, 2007).

The lack of infrastructure for bikes is a barrier. That’s a fear, being injured if I got on a bike

To assess the influence of bicycle infrastructure on the level of cycling participation, researchers have investigated the association between the number of kilometres of bicycle paths per 100,000 residents and the proportion of bicycle commuters. The study found that low levels of bicycle infrastructure have a negative impact on levels of bicycle use (Nelson & Allen, 1997). Importantly, this relationship remained after adjusting for weather, terrain and the number of university students. Their results are supported by the case study on page 16 which shows that increasing the length of the Maylands bicycle path in Western Australia contributed considerably to the increased volume of cycle trips made.

This Australian data is consistent with the international findings on the relationship between the availability of active transport infrastructure, and the community’s participation in cycling.

Milligan et al (2007), after surveying over 3000 Western Australian adults on physical activity found that there is a strong and growing demand for walking and cycling paths and that when bicycle facilities are provided, they are used increasingly for the combined purposes of transport and exercise. They concluded that ‘public infrastructure is important for providing opportunities to facilitate regular physical activity participation’ (p. 59).

They found that the majority of physical activity occurs in public areas such as streets, footpaths and shared paths.  Boosting the level of active transport  infrastructure is therefore likely to bring about increases in physical activity levels and public health.  “…it is imperative that new suburbs are planned with active transport in mind, so that bike routes are laid down when the streets and sewers are mapped out”

Busy roads have also been found to act as a significant barrier to cycling, especially for women (Garrard et al, 2006). The overwhelming majority of commuter arterials lack adequate provision for cyclists and this is likely to explain part of the reason why bicycle journeys to work make up around 1 – 2% of commute trips and only 21% of these are female cyclists (ABS, 2007a).

Figure 14 Secure bicycle parking outside a transport hub in Brisbane

Ensure that street design encourages rather than discourages bicycle use through the provision of on road bicycle lanes.  Provide numerous off road options for those uncomfortable riding on the road.  Target bicycle route development around high demand locations such as schools, shops, community facilities and public transport nodes.

Figure 17 Many Australian roads lack bicycle infrastructure In countries with high bicycle transport mode share, cycling is a socially inclusive activity (Pucher & Dijkstra, 2003; Pucher & Buehler, 2008).  Garrard et al (2006) found that female cyclists often choose routes that separate them from traffic, even if it may result in longer journeys. This is testament to the notion that motor vehicle traffic is a significant barrier to cycling. International studies indicate a strong inverse relationship between bicycle mode share and female participation in cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2008), suggesting that female participation in cycling may be an indicator of a cycling friendly environment. Consequently, any measures that increase female participation in cycling may have a flow-on effect for other groups (eg more risk-averse males, children, older Australians).

For instance, in the 2005 online survey of 2403 cyclists in Victoria, the majority of respondents who cycled for transport used roads with no bicycle facilities (83 per cent of females and 87 per cent of males) but only 6 per cent of females and 12 per cent of males actually preferred this option (Garrard et al, 2006).

The East Perth to Maylands Principal Shared Path offers a good example of the influence of high quality bicycle infrastructure on usage.  The below graph illustrates the substantial increase in cycling coinciding with the years in which improvements had been made to the bicycle route. The figures below reinforce the influence improvements in bicycle infrastructure have on participation (Ker, 2004; Cornwell & Barker, 2007):  Source: Ker, 2004; Cornwell & Barker, 2007.

" 708 extra cyclists used the route each weekday, of which only 102 were transferred from other routes

" 206,500 extra cycle trips per year

" A 50% increase in usage was recorded when the path was extended 2km

" Cost benefit ratio found to be 3.3:1.

Travel Demand Management refers to techniques aimed at reducing the need for car use and making alternative forms of transport more attractive. This can take a number of forms and the following outlines a few examples:

" Restricting motor vehicle access in city centres and creating a pedestrian and bicycle friendly inner core.

" Raising money through higher car parking charges and investing the revenue in pedestrian and bicycle facilities as well as improved public transport. Melbourne currently operates such a scheme.

" Congestion Charging: Since 2003, London has been charging cars for entering the inner city. This has resulted in less traffic congestion and a 43% rise in bicycle journeys.

Revenue is invested in the public transport system and this has resulted in a large jump in passenger boardings and improved travel time (Transport for London, 2007).

It is important to stress that the ‘stick’ approach should be balanced with ‘carrots’ to ensure that a wide range of mobility options are offered. When used in the right balance, they provide a win-win as they improve the traffic environment for those that need to drive, whilst promoting a range of healthier, sustainable travel options for others in the community (Litman, 2007).

The combination of cycling and public transport offers the opportunity to cover

distances not comfortably achieved by bicycle alone. In countries that have

maximised opportunities for bicycling, such as the Netherlands, 38.6% of train

trips involve a bicycle ride to the station (Cycle Council of the Netherlands, 2007).

The three key areas to encourage more people to integrate bicycle and public

transport travel are:

" Safe Bicycle Routes to Public Transport Hubs: This is the essential first step required to enable more people to feel safe and comfortable when riding to the station/stop. Appendix 16 illustrates how an integrated network of bicycle routes leading to train stations can increase the catchment area of public transport hubs.

" Secure Bicycle Parking: Once passengers have cycled to the station, they will require a secure place to lock their bicycle – as it will typically be left unattended for a large portion of the day.

" Taking bicycles on public transport: Providing the opportunity for people to take their bicycles on public transport allows people to ride both to and from their public transport journey. This has proven to boost the attractiveness of each of these modes of transport, as demonstrated by a comprehensive review of current programs throughout the United States (Federal Transit Administration, 2005).

The pictures below demonstrate how well the Netherlands’ efforts in providing safe bicycle routes to train stations and bicycle parking have been embraced.  The heavy demand for bicycle parking at train  stations is not limited to major centres such as Amsterdam. Even regional centres have successfully fostered a culture of riding to the train station, as illustrated in the second photograph.

A study on Perth’s Northern Suburbs Transit System has found that 30-55% of those driving to the station live within 3km (Department for Planning and Infrastructure, unpublished).

At another station, with a relatively narrow catchment in an older developed area, nearly half the cars in the Park and Ride facility are registered at addresses within 800 metres of the station (Jim Krynen, Western Australian Public Transport Authority).

This pattern of vehicle usage reinforces the potential of cycling to replace short distance car trips to public transport facilities like railway stations.

How to encourage better integration of bicycles with public transport

Multi level bicycle parking outside a train station, Amsterdam

Photo: Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Netherlands 2007

Bicycle parking outside Groningen train station, The Netherlands

Photo: Elliot Fishman

See appendix 17 for information on the opportunities available for carry bicycles on public transport.

Safety

Safety concerns are a significant and consistently reported barrier to cycling and this is true for non-riders, infrequent and even regular riders (Daley et al, 2007; Greig, 2007). This section discusses the issue of safety as a barrier to cycling and offers evidence based facilitators to help overcome these concerns.  Daley et al (2007) conducted a series of focus groups with riders and non riders in Sydney and found that fear was a significant and frequently reported theme when investigating barriers to initiating or maintaining regular riding. They also found that ‘Cycling’s dangerous image prevented many non-riders from contemplating riding’ (p. 4).

Hostile Road Behaviour

In a telephone survey of a random sample of 1880 adult Australians in 2004 by the Australian Associated Motor Insurers, a high proportion of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that “Aggressive drivers put me off cycling or walking” (46% of women and 38% of men) (Australian Associated Motor Insurers, 2004).  Moreover, 66% of respondents in the 2005 survey of 2403 cyclists in Victoria reported experiencing intentional harassment from motor vehicle occupants in the previous 12 months (Garrard et al, 2006). The rate of cyclist harassment was an average of 24 incidents every 12 months (approx once a fortnight). These disturbing results are supported by a smaller survey of cyclists in South Australia (Brisco, 2006). Further evidence of road user behaviour acting as a barrier to cycling can be found in appendix 14.

Only one in five drivers knew that it was legal for cyclists to ride two abreast, 44% that cyclists were allowed to ride along a clearway, and 63% that cyclists were allowed to occupy a whole lane (Rissel et al, 2002).

The Transport Research Laboratory in the United Kingdom investigated driver’s attitudes to cyclists, using both qualitative and quantitative methods.  They found drivers often have a negative attitude to cyclists and see them as an ‘out group’. This view was found to result in many cyclists experiencing aggressive and dangerous behaviours from motorists.

Drivers were more annoyed by cyclists (30%) than by other drivers (13%), which the authors attributed to a consistent pattern of regarding “the behaviour of ‘out-group’ members more negatively than the behaviour of ‘in-group’ members” (Basford et al, 2002).

Speed

The evidence linking excessive speed and heightened road traffic danger could not be clearer (Whitelegg, 2006) and this is illustrated in the table below by the World Health Organisation:

The combination of speed, volume of traffic and a lack of designated space for people to ride has been found to be a most significant barrier to cycling (Daley et al, 2007; Garrard et al, 2006).

It is often exacerbated by aggressive driving and this has been consistently identified as a major deterrent to regular cycling, as has the general lack of bicycle infrastructure (Greig, 2001).  Speed control in Australian cities and neighbourhoods is poor, with 50km/h acting as a standard, compared to 20/30 km/hr in many European cities (Whitelegg, 2006; Pucher 2006).

A review of the literature finds that the perception of bicycling as a high risk activity, due to possible collision with motor vehicles deters many potential cyclists (Garrard et al, 2006). Although it is necessary to acknowledge the legitimate concern of cyclists and non-cyclists, the data on road traffic injury presents strong evidence that riding may not be as hazardous as commonly perceived.  In Australia, you are seven times more likely to be hospitalized playing football than riding a bike (Flood and Harrison, 2006).

Research conducted by the British Medical Association found that the health risks of inactivity are 20 times greater than the health risks posed by a potential cycling accident (British Medical Association, 1992).

" Most Australian drivers (88%) exceed the speed limit at least some of the time

" More than one third of Australians (36%) sometimes speed to arrive at work or home sooner

" Four in ten drivers (42%) admit to having driven when over the legal drink-drive limit

" One in ten drivers (10%) say it is OK for them to drink and drive after a few drinks so long as they feel capable

Speed Pedestrian Fatality Rate

32km/h 5%

48km/h 45%

64km/h 85%

Source: Dora, 1999

Cycling is Safer

The graph illustrates that countries with high cycling use have much lower cycling fatalities. The notion that, as the proportion of cycling trips increases so does safety, is also supported by Jocobson (2003) and Robinson (2005)–the latter investigated this relationship in the Australian context. Both authors found that increasing the number of cyclists on the road is an effective strategy to improve road safety. In fact, their investigation of transport injury and bicycle usage data allowed them to conclude “Ifcycling doubles, the risk per kilometre falls 34%” (cited in Robinson, 2005, p. 48).

Numerous other authors have found that as the number of cyclists increase, the number of accidents dramatically reduces on a per kilometre basis (Litman & Fitzroy, 2005; Birk & Geller, 2007; Pucher & Dijkstra, 2003). For instance, cycling in London has increased 83% over the last 6 years, yet the number of serious crashes involving cyclists has fallen proportionally by 28% (Greater London Authority, 2007). The more cyclists there are, the more visible they will be to other road users, as people will be expecting to see cyclists. It is also more likely that car drivers will, themselves, ride a bike at some time – car drivers who also ride a bike are more likely to be aware of and respect the rights of cyclists (Transport Western Australia, 1996). See appendix 14 for additional information.

Research has shown that the more often you cycle, the safer it is. In fact, by riding twice a week instead of once a week, the chance of an accident halves, due to training and increased awareness of cars (Transport Western Australia, 1996).

The United Kingdom’s Social Exclusion Unit found that roads with heavy motor vehicle traffic act as a barrier to walking and cycling (2003). This barrier can be ameliorated by placing restrictions on heavy vehicle traffic on roads that form part of a bicycle network.

A recent review by the World Health Organisation on the literature examining the effect of the road traffic environment on cycle and pedestrian safety found that area wide traffic calming significantly reduce road traffic injury (Bunn et al, 2003, cited in Killoran et al, 2006).

" The more cyclists there are, the safer it becomes.

" Motorists behaviour largely controls the likelihood of collisions with people walking and cycling.

" Comparison of pedestrian and cyclist collision frequencies between communities and over time periods need to reflect the amount of walking and bicycling.

" Efforts to enhance pedestrian and cyclist safety, including traffic engineering and legal policies, need to be examined for their ability to modify motorist behaviour.

" Policies that increase walking and cycling appear to be an effective route to improving road safety. (Jacobson, 2003)

Source: (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2005), European Union (2003), US Department of Transportation (2003 & 2005) citied in Pucher, 2006)

2.5 Policy and regulation

Public health is affected by a range of factors not generally considered related to the health sector. As described above, transport and land use policies can have powerful influences on public health, in either a positive or negative direction.  Sallis et al (1998) in their paper Environmental and Policy Interventions to Promote Physical Activity noted that much of the available evidence suggests that many of the interventions necessary to increase physical activity will need to be funded outside the health sector. An acknowledgement by public health experts, including the World Health Organisation that the transport sector has an extremely important role to play in the creation of a physically active community (Dora, 1999) is an important precursor to the development of a transport system that works for rather than against the public’s health.

A comprehensive review of the evidence supporting cycling by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in the United Kingdom recommended that ‘Transport policies should be subject to more systematic use of health impact assessments’ (Killoran et al, 2006, p. 5). It is essential that such health impact assessments be conducted on all major transport projects. The assessment would include impacts on road safety, noise and air pollution, liveability, and sedentary lifestyle disease. Importantly, it would also assess the project’s impact on climate change, as it has now been established that climate change has profound public health implications (Research Australia, 2007).

The World Health Organisation (2006) recommends that health professionals can play a lead role in the promotion of physical activity. Their role is unique in that they have a particular advantage at targeting those that stand to benefit the most from the activity, namely, physically under active groups. Moreover, they are an important and respected source of health information (Milligan et al, 2007).

Encouraging GP’s to effectively convey the importance of physical activity to appropriate patients is an under-utilised method of reducing sedentary lifestyle disease. Specifically, the World Health Organisation recommends:

" Increasing the level of education offered to health professionals during training on the importance of bicycle riding as Preventive medicine.

" Providing financial motivation for health professionals prescribing physical activity.

" Encouraging the health sector to lead by example; encouraging active travel to/from health institutions.

A number of researchers in the field of physical activity promotion at a population level have suggested incentive based programs may be effective at boosting physical activity. According to Sallis et al (1998), providing discounts on health insurance for people that ride to work for instance may hold promise.

Western Australia’s Premiers Council on Physical Activity (Milligan et al (2007) found that only 18% of overweight patients had received GP advice on physical activity, as demonstrated in appendix 9.

Physical bicycle infrastructure, such as bike lanes, signage, ramps etc are traditional, straight-forward strategies used to encourage cycling. Whilst these initiatives are evidence based methods of encouraging cycling, there are additional solutions that do not directly involve the development of bicycle specific infrastructure. These initiatives have nevertheless proven to be an efficient method of improving bicycle friendliness and participation. ‘Invisible Infrastructure’ (Sully, 2005) focuses on regulatory and design features that are not directly bike-orientated. Examples include speed restrictions and traffic calming.  Sully (2005) argues that such policies, practices and physical measures encourage a modal shift in favour of cycling without a significant financial investment in cycle-specific infrastructure. An important advantage of invisible infrastructure is that it provides a range of additional benefits – not simply for cyclists, but for the community as a whole. For instance, speed restrictions have been shown to increase both the perceived and actual level of safety – for all road users (Dora, 1999; Hillman et al, 1991).

The effectiveness of invisible infrastructure is demonstrated in Hilden, Germany, which experienced a significant increase in cycling through the implementation of wide spread speed restrictions. Residents of Hilden report improved perceptions of safety as a principal reason for cycling more (King, 2005).

Physical inactivity and the resulting lifestyle diseases are reducing Australia’s health status and quality of life.  “We…have created an environment that makes it very convenient for people to be inactive, and subsequently develop unhealthy behaviours. The only way to combat this is to make it equally convenient for people to become active, and moreover, easier for them to inherit a better quality of life”.

Boosting the level of bicycle riding offers significant opportunities to reverse the emerging trend of decreasing activity levels and spiralling rates of obesity and diabetes.  The following policy interventions are designed to respond directly to the barriers to cycling outlined earlier and are based on the best available, most domestically relevant evidence.  As previously highlighted, researchers have consistently found that a lack of time is one of the most frequently cited reasons for not participating in physical activity. Cycling, as a form of transport and active recreation, overcomes this issue, as individuals’ health, transport and recreation needs are combined into the same activity – thereby saving time!

The World Health Organisation has established that a wide range of interventions, at a population-wide and individual level are required to boost levels of physical activity (WHO, 2006).

Professor Boyd Swinburn has demonstrated the importance of comprehensive and long-term approaches to tackling such issues as obesity (Swinburn & Egger, 1996). It is for this reason that it is important to provide both a supportive physical environment for cycling and encouragement programs and events.  It is this combination of the ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ infrastructure that offers the most effective strategy.

A significant body of evidence now exists to demonstrate that many public health issues have been successfully tackled with a population-wide approach; tobacco control and seatbelt wearing are good examples.

Policy interventions to encourage physical activity using similar population wide measures are likely to be successful. This includes political support, appropriate funding and whole-of-government strategies (WHO, 2006). These policies must translate into an on the ground reality that makes the healthy choice the easy choice. Cycling is certainly the healthy choice. Making it the easy choice is the focus of this report’s recommendations.

Mass marketing campaign

This report recommends that a national mass marketing campaign be developed to address perceived barriers to cycling. Key messages likely to be successful include:

" Cycling is safer than you think

" You don’t need to be super fit to cycle

" Improve road user behaviour/safety/awareness of cyclists

" Benefits of choosing to cycle; health improvements, greenhouse gas and petrol savings, relief from congestion and parking problems.

Recommendation 1

It is important to ensure that mass marketing is done in coordination with infrastructural improvements to ensure new cyclists are not deterred from the experience.

Recommendation 2

Bicycle education programs

This report recommends that a national bicycle education program be developed and implemented across years 5 and 6, as well as community and workplace programs for adults.

Recommendation 3

Behaviour change programs

This report recommends the expansion of behaviour change initiatives such as TravelSmart, Ride to School and Ride to Work programs.

Recommendation 4

Cycling events

This report recommends government support for cycling events, to act as an entry point for new cyclists.

Recommendation 5

Urban design

This report recommends the establishment of national guidelines to ensure the built environment contributes to, rather than detracts from, public health. Design should be encouraged through legislation that increases density, combines residential with other land uses and prioritises active forms of transport.

Recommendation 6

Bicycle Infrastructure

This report recommends the provision of high quality, integrated bicycle routes (on and off road) to meet the challenge of increasing Australia’s participation in active travel and recreation.

Recommendation 7

Funding

This report recommends that funding needs to be substantially increased at all levels of government to better reflect the contribution cycling makes to priorities in the transport, climate change, health and economic sectors.

Australians have reduced their level of physical activity over recent decades and this has impacted negatively on our health.  Physical inactivity is now a major cause of ill health, contributing to obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, as well as breast cancer and depression.  It is now clear that cycling offers an effective but underutilised form of physical activity, providing significant contributions to public health. Moreover, when used as an alternative to motorised transport, cycling is an effective method of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, congestion and increasingly expensive fuel costs.

Although cycling is increasing in popularity, both as a form of recreation and transport, participation remains low by international standards and some significant barriers must be overcome before considerable gains can be expected. These barriers have been identified in terms of:

" Individual factors such as a lack of riding skills and confidence

" Social and cultural factors such as societal acceptance of heavy car use, even for short trips

" Environmental factors such as urban planning and bicycle infrastructure

" Safety issues

" Policy and regulation matters

Solutions to each of these challenges exist and a focus of this report has been to outline practical, cost-effective solutions to increase adult participation in cycling.

An integrated suite of solutions have been recommended that address each of the aforementioned barriers to cycling. These include:

" Mass marketing the benefits of cycling

" Providing bicycle education programs in schools, workplaces and community settings

" Supporting cycling events

" Improving urban design/planning to make cycling more attractive

" Boosting the quality and quantity of bicycle infrastructure networks such as on and off-road bicycle routes and end of trip facilities

" Better integration of cycling with public transport systems

" Reassessment of funding for cycling; to better reflect cycling’s contribution to health, traffic congestion, climate change and high fuel costs.

As Australians continue to lead time poor lives, cycling is in a unique position for its ability to integrate physical activity into everyday living, especially through the use of the bicycle as a form of transport and active recreation.  The responsibility to create healthy conditions for cycling is not entirely within the direct control of the health sector. It is important to recognise a whole-of-government approach is required, with commitment from the health, transport, environment, education and planning portfolios. Only through a combined approach can the significant benefits of increased cycling be fully realised.

Appendix 1

Walking, 3.3 km per hour 276 376 426 477 502 552

Walking, 4.8 km per hour 368 502 568 635 669 736

Bushwalking, carrying 5kg load 828 1129 1279 1430 1505 1655

Jogging, 8 km per hour 849 1162 1317 1471 1547 1701

Running, 14 km per hour 1517 2069 2345 2621 2759 3035

Bicycling, 15-16 km per hour 577 786 890 991 1045 1150

Bicycling, 21 km per hour 920 1254 1421 1588 1672 1839

Trimming hedges 481 660 744 832 878 966

Vacuuming, window cleaning, car washing 343 468 535 594 627 690

Swimming (25 metres /minute) 552 752 853 953 1003 1104

Swimming (50 metres /minute) 1037 1413 1597 1789 1881 2069

Tennis (doubles) 506 690 782 874 920 1012

Source: Bauman, 2004

Appendix 2

" Climate change cost savings of

commuter cycling were calculated

using A$40/tonne of carbon

dioxide. This is higher than the

Australian Transport Commission’s

(2006a) default value, but is still

very low by European standards.

The United Kingdom, for example,

currently requires a value of

approximately A$200/tonne for

transport project appraisal.

" Road traffic congestion is

calculated based on incremental

values derived from the Australian

Bureau of Transport and Regional

Economics (2007) for each capital

city.

" The value of reduced congestion

was determined using capital city

cycling to work only, as this is

where congestion costs are

greatest. Similarly, the assessment

has been on the basis of cycle only

commuting trips, as bicycle +

other mode trips (usually with

public transport) will tend to be

shorter and also occur in outer or

middle suburbs, where congestion

and the impacts of air pollution are

less intense. Our estimates will be,

if anything, underestimates of the

true impact of cycling to work.

" The savings to the health system

is calculated based on net

mortality (death rate) reduction and

reduced morbidity (disease)

(updated values from Ker, 2004).

" The value for mortality

improvement was estimated on

the basis of (a) Hillman (1997),

who concluded that for every life

year lost due to cyclist fatalities

there is a corresponding gain of

20 life years through improved

health and fitness and (b) costs of

cyclist fatalities in WA provided by

the Road Safety Council of

Western Australia, to derive a

value for each life-year.

" Less research has been done on

the value of morbidity

improvements. The value used

here was originally suggested by

Ker (2003) as a sensitivity test,

based on limited information

available.

" The average length of bicycle

commuting trips (with bicycle as

sole mode) is around 7 kilometres

each way (derived from data in

ABS, 2006).

" In assessing the value of cycle

commuting, all impacts have been

valued at resource cost (ie net of

pure financial transfers such as

indirect taxes – GST and fuel

excise) at 2006 prices. However,

we have included a progressive

increase in the price of petrol to

$2/litre by 2016, reflecting a

conservative increase in the real

cost of oil. This has an impact on

car operating costs and

congestion costs, both of which

have a fuel component.

" Cycling offers the potential for

considerable personal savings, in

terms of reduced transport

expenses. This can occur through

reduced need for car ownership

and/or reduced car usage. These

cost savings have not been

calculated for this report but may

be helpful for future investigations

on the economic benefits of

cycling.

Appendix 3

Ride to Work Day is an effective

behaviour change event on a number

of levels. It encourages people to

contemplate, prepare for and trial

the ride-to-work experience, then to

maintain that behaviour after the event.

As a tool for behaviour change it acts as:

" A thought-provoker for those

who are yet to commence riding

to work.

" An opportunity to prepare for and

trial the experience for those who

have been giving riding some

thought.

" A deadline to get ready for those

who have already begun

preparing.

" A reminder or prompt to get back

into riding for seasonal or lapsed

riders (maintenance).

" Behaviour reinforcement

(maintenance) and an opportunity

to support new and returning

riders for regular riders.

Appendix 4

Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006, p. 9

Average

Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006

Appendix 5

as this removes outliers that live large distances from work and whose figures would skew the averaged results

Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006

Appendix 6

Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006

Appendix 7

TravelSmart Workplaces: develops

partnerships with organisations to

reduce car use, particularly to and from

work. This typically involves the

development of a Green Travel Plan for

the organisation, highlighting a range

of initiatives to promote alternatives to

single occupant car use – including:

" Development of Bicycle User

Groups (BUGs) and staff

bicycle fleets

" Installation of end of trip facilities

for cyclists, such as bike parking,

showers and change rooms.

" CycleSmart software to help staff

gauge how their decision to cycle

helps their health (eg/ calories

burnt), the environment (eg/

greenhouse gas saved), and their

wallet (eg/ reduced fuel costs).

" Staff Bicycle Fleet: Operating in a

similar manner to an organisation’s

motor vehicle fleet, a bicycle fleet

is a healthy alternative for short

trips. The Department of the

Environment and Water Resources

(2007) have recently released a

toolkit designed to help

organisations get started.

" Car pooling software into

workplace intranet

" Information on public transport

options

" On line toolkit to develop the

business case for reducing car use

Appendix 8

" Participant total was 3,800, an

increase of 73% from 2,200

in 2005

" 74% were Male and 26% were

female.

" 79% were between 26 and

55 years of age

" Approximately 1,000 riders were

from outside the greater Brisbane

area

" 50% normally ride 5 to 10 hours

per week

" 61% were not Bicycle Queensland

members

" 40% had not previously been

on a BQ event

" 87% entered the event online

" 99% of riders said they would

recommend the event to others

" 97% were satisfied or very

satisfied with their experience

on the day.

" Funds raised for Diabetes research

was $60,000 (increased from

$22,000 in 2005

Source: Bicycle Queensland

Appendix 9

Source: Milligan et al, 2007

Male 15.5

Female 13.8

18 to 29 years 8.3

30 to 44 years 17.2

45 to 59 years 17.0

60 years or more 14.7

Perth metropolitan area 14.9

South West 14.1

Kimberley/Pilbara 15.9

Midwest/Goldfields 12.7

Inactive 15.5

Insufficient 17.3

Sufficient 13.2

Underweight 8.8

Acceptable 6.6

Overweight 17.6

Obese 36.2

Overall 14.6

Appendix 10

According to the Ecological Model of Physical Activity, the

policy goal must be one that seeks to create a positive

interaction between environmental, social and personal factors,

to bring about increases in physical activity. A practical example

of such an approach would be the simultaneous creation of

improved bicycle infrastructure, combined with behaviour change

programs to promote the adoption of cycling.

Whilst a combination of environmental and behavioural

interventions are considered to be most effective in boosting

levels of physical activity, it is essential to recognise that

supportive physical environments should precede behaviour

change programs (Sallis et al, 1998). After all, promoting the

benefits of physical activity in an environment that is hostile to

such behaviour is unlikely to be effective, enjoyable or

sustainable.

The figure below offers an overview of the Ecological Model

of Physical Activity, providing an outline of where each

influence sits in the model. It groups environmental and

policy considerations as one, whereas in this report, they

have been treated separately, but no less interrelated. Source: Hume, 2007 (adapted from Davison & Birch, 2001)

* Sufficient activity is defined at 150

minutes of moderate physical activity

over five or more sessions or 60

minutes of vigorous physical activity

per week (excludes gardening and

household chores).

Appendix 11

Workplaces are beginning to provide

end of trip facilities and legislation has

been shown to streamline and

coordinate the process of developing

the wide spread adoption of end of trip

facilities. This has already started to

occur in select areas around Australia.

For example, the Parking and Access

Policy for the Town of Vincent (WA)

states, for non-residential

development, that:

Bicycle parking facilities and end of trip

facilities are to be provided in addition

to the calculated [car] parking

requirement at the rate specified in the

Bicycle Parking requirements Table.

Bicycle parking is to be provided for

employees/residents as well as

visitors/shoppers in accordance with

the specifications (p.3).

The Town of Vincent

Parking and Access Policy

End of trip facilities are facilities which

enable the cyclist to shower and

change at the beginning or end of their

journey to and from work. The facilities

include separate male and female

change rooms, showers and storage

lockers. All new developments, and

where appropriate, developments

which involve a change of use and/or

additions/enlargements to an existing

building, that are required to provide

10 or more bicycle parking bays in

accordance with the employee

requirements of the above table, are

required to provide end of trip facilities,

as follows:

i) A minimum of one female shower

and one male shower, located in

separate change rooms.

ii) Additional shower facilities to be

provided at a rate of one female

shower and one male shower for

every additional 10 bicycle parking

bays, to a maximum of five female

and five male showers per

development.

iii) End of journey facilities should be

located as close as possible to the

bicycle parking facilities.

iv) The change rooms to be secure

facilities capable of being locked.

v) A locker to be provided for every

bicycle parking bay provided.

In 2004, Victoria became the first state

to amend their planning code to

encourage the development of end of

trip facilities in large new commercial

and residential projects. Bicycle parking,

showers, lockers and change rooms

will be mandatory for all new buildings

greater than 1000m2. Offices, retail,

hospitals and apartments over 1000m2

will be required to include at least one

bike parking space for every 300 square

metres of floor space (TravelSmart, 2004).

In 2006, the Australian Capital Territory

introduced Bicycle Parking Guidelines

which requires commercial

developments to provide one bicycle

parking space per 250m2 and for each

apartment. In addition, it is possible to

replace one car space with four bicycle

spaces to a maximum of 5% of the total

number of mandatory car parking spots

(Planning and Land Authority, 2006).

Appendix 12

0

Australia USA UK Canada Denmark Germany Netherlands

10

20

30

15

25

35

40

45

50

55

60

Percentage of trips by women

21%

25%

29% 30%

45%

59%

55%

Source: Pucher & Buehler, 2008

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007); Department for

Transport (2007); Danish Ministry of Transport (2005);

Statistics Netherlands (2005); German Federal Ministry

of Transport (2003); U.S. Department of Transport

(2003) and information provided directly by planners in

Canadian provinces and cities

Appendix 13

Source: Pucher & Dijkstra, 2003

Appendix 14

A Victorian Parliamentary inquiry into

violence associated with motor vehicle

use received a large number of

submissions from the cycling

community reporting instances of road

violence. Several submissions

suggested that the presence of cyclists

on the road was a trigger for road

violence against cyclists (Drugs and

Crime Prevention Committee, 2005).

Driver knowledge of the road rules as

they relate to people on bicycles has

been found to be generally poor. Only

one in five (19%) of drivers knew that it

was legal for cyclists to ride two

abreast, 44% that cyclists were

allowed to ride along a clearway, and

63% that cyclists were allowed to

occupy a whole lane (Rissel et al,

2002). Importantly, this lack of

knowledge regarding vital aspects of

the road rules has been found to be

associated with a negative attitude

amongst motorists towards people on

bicycles (Rissel et al, 2002). The hostile

reception reported by bicyclists from

motorists is a consistent theme when

surveying people who ride bicycles.

Daley et al (2007) found that many

occasional and regular riders perceived

the average Sydney driver as impatient

and intolerant. Some thought drivers

were more likely to respect cyclist’s

safety and rights if bicycles were more

frequently encountered on the roads

and this is supported by Robinson

(2005) who found that the more

cyclists there are, the safer it becomes.

Riders described altercations where

motorists took out frustrations on

them, often triggered by the motorist’s

view that their journey was delayed by

the rider. Riders felt there was a

skewed driver perception that a cyclist

held up traffic, rather than seeing them

as a legitimate part of the traffic

system. It is this lack of

acknowledgement towards people on

bicycles that has been found by Greig

(2001) to be a significant deterrent

towards regular cycling.

Appendix 15

Source: Birk & Geller, 2007, data collected from Portland, US

0

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

2,500

5,000

7,500

10,000

100

200

300

400

150

250

350

450

500

550

600

Bridge bicycle traffic

Cyclists per day

Crashes

Reported bicycle crashes Indexed bicycle crash rate (trend line)

Indexed Crash Rate

The long blue line left represents

the proportion of cycle crashes

relative to actual number of

cyclists. It clearly illustrates

that as the number of cyclists

increases, the safer it becomes.

Appendix 16

Source: Elliot Fishman, adapted from Hudson, 1978

Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 200 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Bridge Bicycle Traffic 2850 3555 3885 3830 3207 4520 5225 5690 5910 6015 7686 8250 8562 8875 10192

Reported Bicycle Crashes 155 163 171 189 195 160 167 166 161 179 175 173 164 174 188

Indexed Bicycle Crash Rate 544 459 440 493 514 354 320 292 272 298 230 210 192 196 184

Bicycle Fatalities 2 0 4 3 2 1 5 1 0 0 5 0 4 1 4

Appendix 17

Bicycles on the front of a bus, Canberra

Source: Cycling Promotion Fund

The United States has a very successful federally funded program to allow passengers to carry bikes on buses (Federal Transit Administration, 2005). The United States Federal Government provides the capital costs to install racks on the front of the bus. Despite initial apprehension from bus companies, the experience has been overwhelmingly positive and it has grown to include over 30 cities. A key learning from this program is the importance of installing racks on all buses in the company’s fleet (Federal Transit Administration, 2005). Two small pilot projects in Brisbane and Canberra have shown only limited success due to the fact that only a small number of buses were fitted with the racks and only on limited routes.

The following pictures offer a good overview of the diverse range of options provided in the United States by the Federal Government to encourage the combination of bicycles and public transport.  A bicycle on Portland's light rail

Source: Elliot Fishman

Bicycles on the inside of trams in Maryland, United States Source: Michael Jackson, Department of Transportation, Maryland, US Bicycles on Trains, California, United States

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Cycling offers an effective form of physical activity, providing significant contributions to public health. When used as an alternative to motorised transport, cycling is an effective method of reducing -

*        greenhouse gas emissions,

*        congestion and

*        increasingly expensive fuel costs

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