Abstract
Research indicates that single mothers experience
excessive stress and that the stress is a result of the need to
provide financially for the family concurrently with caring for the
home in ways traditionally handled by both men and women, acquiring
new skills, and parenting. A
review of the literature demonstrates that stress has a direct
impact on the child. However, results about its effect on the
mother’s ability to provide quality child care were mixed. The
purpose of this study was to determine whether single mothers
experience stress and, if so, whether or not the stress affects
their ability to provide quality child care. Pursuant to this study,
a survey instrument that employed a six-question Likert-type scale
was distributed to the single mothers of children attending
preschools in the Santa Clarita Valley as well as to students
attending The Master’s College.
The results of the study
indicated that the single mothers in Santa Clarita Valley appear to
successfully provide adequate child care in spite of the stress they
face, contrary to the perception of the students at The Master’s
College.
Introduction
Single mothers juggle many responsibilities
including financial provision, house keeping, and parenting (Rani,
2006). In addition, they lack a supportive spouse to turn to for
counsel, cooperation, and comfort. The stress in the mother’s life
and the way she deals with it also impacts her child. Current
research suggests that professional help is sought for mental health
reasons by single-parent mothers two to three times more often (Cairney,
Boyle, Lipman, and Racine, 2004). Even the relatively privileged
single mothers “found it difficult to manage (and got little support
for) the traditional female tasks of cooking, cleaning, and caring
for children” (Nelson, 2004, ¶ 1). Single mothers may be exposed to
enormous stress due to the need to provide the financial needs of
the family concurrently with caring for the home including those
responsibilities traditionally assumed by men, acquiring new skills,
and raising a child, all at the same time. This study investigated
the potential stress of single-mothers and its effect on their
ability to provide child care.
General Stressors for Single Mothers
Single mothers have a dual responsibility in their
households. “You’re a working mom and you’re tired beyond belief.
You rush to get to work on time, race to pick up the kids at day
care, and juggle an endless list of household chores before falling
into bed at midnight” (Hittner, 1998, p. 1). This is life for many
women today in the United States. “Compared to two-parent
households, lone parents have not only reduced money but also half
the adult time resources available” (Craig, 2005, p. 522).
Stress may also result from various social
pressures. Most immediately, conflict with the child’s father, in
addition to not having a supportive husband, is an ongoing reality
for many single mothers. Studies suggest that depressive symptoms of
single mothers are associated with mother/nonresident-father
relationship (Jackson & Scheines, 2005). Sometimes, the father does
not acknowledge his offspring, and they go to court; many are
freshly divorced and have a hostile relationship; yet others
constantly fight over child support (Tharps, 2005). Even seeking a
new relationship with a man is a challenge for single mothers. There
is guilt, Tharps says, in even “contemplating a social outing
without the kids” (p. 5). On the other hand, she may not want a new
relationship while people around her urge her to seek one.
Social pressure may also include those of general
societal expectations. That is, the society expects single mother
families to be “more susceptible to problems than are two-parent
biological families” (Lansford, Ceballo, Abbey, & Stewart, 2001, p.
8). Haleman’s research showed that “public discourses about single
motherhood are manifested in their daily lives through expectations
based on family form, welfare participation, and race” (Haleman,
1998, Abstract). Mothers subject to this pressure potentially
develop feelings of inferiority, aggression, and restlessness due to
their single status (Rani, 2006).
The greatest challenge of all may be economical.
“Sixty percent of the children living with their mothers are in
poverty” (Hargreaves, 1991, p. 23), and many of these mothers are
young and never-married without high school education nor the
expected parenting skills. Even a middle class single mother is
confronted with financial uncertainty due to divorce and/or a lack
of child support from the child’s father (Tharps, 2005). The drastic
decline in income upon divorce is displayed in the US Census Bureau
research: “In 1992, the median family income for two-parent families
was $42,064; for families with no father present it was only
$17,221” (Sroufe, Cooper, & DeHart, p. 62). They are not even able
to simply devote themselves to work and/or higher education in order
to increase earnings due to their responsibilities to attend to
their children (Craig, 2005).
Effects of Stress
“Single mothers experience more stressful life
events than do married mothers” (Rani, 2006, p. 3). Single mothers
are affected by all of the above stressors, in addition to the
stress of normal life and parenting. Stress can weaken the mother’s
immune system when CRH, a hormone that makes one more focused and
ready to spring into action, is over secreted (Hittner, 1998).
Therefore a single mother who juggles many responsibilities more
readily falls sick, creating an additional strain. Unfailingly, a
study of various family structures has found that “single mothers
had somewhat lower well-being than did married mothers” (Lansford,
Ceballo, Abbey, & Stewart, 2001, p. 8).
The mother’s stress will also affect the child, both
directly and indirectly. Studies reveal that parenting stress leads
to a stricter disciplinary style and less nurturing behaviors toward
the child (Crnic & Greenberg, 1987). Mothers who are dissatisfied
with their employment status “enjoy their children less, are less
confident as parents, and have more difficulty controlling their
children” (Sroufe, Cooper, & DeHart, 1996, p. 60). These parental
behaviors mediate stress into negative influence on the development
of the child. Moreover, a recent study shows that parenting stress
has a direct impact, independent from parenting practices, on
preschool children’s social competence (Anthony, et al., 2005). The
mother’s stress is reflected in the children’s “loneliness,
withdrawal, regression, and fear of loss of the remaining parent.
Socially too they showed either aggression or withdrawal symptoms” (Rani,
2006, p.3).
Providing Quality Child Care
Quality child care means, consistent response to
signals, being available for communication, and alleviating stress (Sroufe,
et al., 1996). This practice then creates a base for mother-child
attachment, enabling the child to have confidence in the presence of
other caregivers. In a recent study of quality mother-child
relationship, a survey was conducted asking children “how often the
mother praises the child, criticizes the child, how likely the child
would be to go to the mother if he or she had a major decision to
make or was feeling depressed” (Lansford, et al., 2001). The same
study also measured the mothers’ time with children both for
quantity and quality, as well as parental monitoring of children for
how well the mother knew about the child’s life. These standards
show that providing consistent quality child care requires
availability and significant time commitment.
Admittedly, single mothers face significant
difficulty in providing quality child care for their children. Rani
(2006) found that a combination of parenting single handedly,
financial tension, and strain of over load often lead to neglect of
children. “Time poverty is the flipside of sole mothers’ employment”
(Craig, 2005, p. 522). Craig’s research was conducted in Australia
and its applicability to the United States is unknown, but its
results are noteworthy. This study categorized a mother’s time
committed to child care as being either a primary activity or
secondary activity for the mother. No significant difference in time
commitment was found between married and single mothers in providing
child care as a primary activity. However, as a secondary activity,
not requiring active involvement with the child but constricting the
mother from certain tasks, single mothers were found to commit more
time to child care. These mothers compensated for the lack of time
provided by a father by cutting down both outside work and house
work, and by spending time supervising the children while engaging
in other tasks (Craig, 2005). On the other hand, a study in India
revealed conflicting results: “The [single] mothers did not have
time to spend with children and faced problems in disciplining the
children” (Rani, 2006, p. 8).
Additionally, the absence of a father aids in the difficulty of
providing appropriate discipline. A father’s approach to child
rearing differs from that of a mother ( Hamilton, 1977 ) and seems
to promote achievement motivation. That may be why children raised
apart from their fathers tend to “exhibit lower academic performance
than those raised with their fathers” (Swihart & Brigham, 1982, p.
62). Furthermore, a boy models and identifies in his father more
than in his mother. A father ’s involvement is invaluable in a
girl’s life also as it promotes discipline and sex role learning
(Hamilton, 1977). It appears that the absence of the father deprives
children of numerous learning opportunities.
The single mother lives with the competing
priorities of earning money and providing caring services to their
children (Craig, 2005). According to Tharps, “the secret of being
sane… is reaching out for help” (2005, p. 6). For example, a
rotation schedule with other neighborhood mothers frees up time for
everyone (Calizaire, 2005). Sharing residence reduces the cost of
living in addition to creating a family-like community looking after
each other and the children (Dickinson, 2001). Simply being able to
share thoughts with someone else who is in a similar situation can
prove to be extremely helpful. Even if the woman is unable to find
this within her social realm, online sites and magazines can be a
source of encouragement and connection with other single mothers.
Grandparents of the child, especially grandmothers who live nearby,
have also played an important role in the life of single mothers. It
has been estimated that one-third of single mothers live in their
parents’ home at some point, the length of that stay averaging
almost two years (Bianchi, 1995). Life is made easier by the loving
care and aged wisdom grandmas can provide as well as help with
cooking, chauffeuring, and pitching in with daily tasks (Miller,
1996).
Method
The purpose of this study was to determine the
potential stress of single mothers and its effect on child care. The
following research questions were explored:
- Are single mothers stressed?
- Does single mothers’ stress affect their provision of
quality child care?
These research questions provided the focus of this
study.
Method of Data Collection
The survey instrument used in this study was
designed to determine the potential stress of single mothers and its
effect on child care. A personal data sheet requested demographic
data in addition to the responses to the six survey questions. The
survey instrument was distributed to single mothers of children
attending St. Stephens Nursery, Rise & Shine Preschool, and Santa
Clarita Little People during the months of March and April of 2006.
The selection of preschools was dependent on the institution’s
willingness to participate, as well as the presence or absence of
single mothers. The instruments were returned to each facility and
were placed in an envelope to be collected by the researcher. A
rephrased survey was also distributed to students at The Master’s
College attending a night class or relaxing in Sweazy Dormitory
Lounge on April 18, 2006. The instruments were returned to the
researcher the same evening. All of the above institutions used for
data collection are located in Santa Clarita, California.
Statistical Procedures
STATPAK was employed to examine the data; the
desired scale of measurement was ordinal. In the ordinal scale of
measurement, the data are described in a ranked or dated set of
values (Joseph & Joseph, 1986). The One Dimentional Chi-Square
statistical test was utilized to analyze the results because it
measures the variance of nominal or ordinal data, the discrepancy
between frequencies actually observed in the sample of subjects
measured, and frequencies expected according to the stated
hypothesis. The 0.05 level of significance was used to test the
results of the study. Data retrieved from the demographic portion of
the survey instrument were reported in percentages and figures.
Results
The first sample group for this study consisted of
single mothers of children attending St. Stephen’s Nursery, Rise &
Shine Preschool, and Santa Clarita Little People in March and April,
2006. Sixty-four copies of the survey instrument were distributed;
ten were returned, and ten were used in this study. This sample will
be referred to as group A in the following narrative. The second
sample group consisted of students at The Master’s College who were
in a night class or in Sweazy Lounge on April 18, 2006. Thirty
copies of the survey instrument were distributed; twenty-five were
returned, and twenty-five were used in this study. This sample will
be referred to as group B in the following narrative. The data
collected from the 35 subjects will be discussed in subsequent
sections, commencing with the reporting of the demographic findings.
Table 1 summarizes the survey responses.
Table 1
Summary of Responses to Survey Questions
| SURVEY QUESTION |
SCALE NUMBER |
TOTAL RESPONSES |
COMPUTED
CHI-SQUARE VALUE |
TABLED
CHI-SQUARE VALUE |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
No Response |
|
|
|
| Group A |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
3 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
5 |
10 |
1.6000 |
5.991 |
| 2 |
0 |
1 |
2 |
2 |
4 |
1 |
10 |
2.1111 |
7.815 |
| 3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
4 |
5 |
1 |
10 |
0.1111 |
3.841 |
| 4 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
10 |
0 |
10 |
|
|
| 5 |
1 |
7 |
0 |
0 |
2 |
0 |
10 |
6.2000 |
5.991 |
| 6 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
5 |
3 |
0 |
10 |
4.4000 |
7.815 |
| Group B |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
0 |
0 |
7 |
10 |
8 |
0 |
25 |
0.5600 |
5.991 |
| 2 |
0 |
13 |
9 |
3 |
0 |
0 |
25 |
6.0800 |
5.991 |
| 3 |
0 |
6 |
9 |
10 |
0 |
0 |
25 |
1.0400 |
5.991 |
| 4 |
0 |
0 |
13 |
9 |
3 |
0 |
25 |
6.0800 |
5.991 |
| 5 |
4 |
15 |
4 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
25 |
16.7600 |
7.815 |
| 6 |
0 |
0 |
3 |
9 |
13 |
0 |
25 |
6.0800 |
5.991 |
Group A
The survey indicated that 80 percent of the subjects
had supportive friends nearby and 20 percent did not. Ten percent
had no meals with their children; ten percent had one; ten percent
had four; thirty percent had five; ten percent had seven; ten
percent had eleven; ten percent had fourteen; ten percent had
sixteen.
Group B
The survey indicated that the sample was 32 percent
male and 68 percent female. Seventy-six percent knew one or more
single mothers personally and twenty-four percent did not.
Research Question One
What factors contribute to a single mother’s stress?
Questions 1, 5, and 6 of the survey instrument located in Appendix A
addressed this Research Question.
The computed Chi-square value (1.6000) for survey
question number one, group A, is less than the tabled Chi-square
value (5.991) at the 0.05 level of significance; therefore it can be
concluded that the variance in the results is not statistically
significant. Additionally, 50 percent of the subjects answered that
“there is a father figure in their children’s life.” Since the
computed Chi-square value (0.5600) for survey question one, group B,
is less than the tabled Chi-square value (5.991) at the 0.05 level
of significance, the variance in the result is not statistically
significant. However, the survey results show that all subjects
perceive that single mothers feel pressured about not having a
father figure in their children’s life at least sometimes. This
finding aligns with the research conducted by Haleman who said,
“public discourses about single motherhood are manifested in their
daily lives through expectations based on family form, welfare
participation, and race” (1998, Abstract).
Because the computed Chi-square value (6.2000) for
survey question five, group A, is greater than the tabled Chi-square
value (5.991) at the 0.05 level of significance, the results are
statistically significant. It can be concluded from the tallied data
that subjects rarely find time to relax. This finding aligns with
the research conducted by Craig (2005) who found that lone parents
have reduced money and about half the adult time resources.
The computed Chi-square value (16.7600) for survey question five,
group B, is greater than the tabled Chi-square value (7.815) at the
0.05 level of significance, so the results are statistically
significant. It can be concluded that subjects perceive single
mothers rarely find time to relax. This finding aligns with the
research conducted by Hittner (1998) who found working mothers spend
their time rushing to get to work, to pick up kids and day care, and
carry out an endless list of household chores before going to bed at
midnight.
The computed Chi-square value (4.4000) for survey
question six, group A, is less than the tabled Chi-square value
(7.815) at the 0.05 level of significance, so the variance in the
results is not statistically significant. Because the computed
Chi-square value (6.0800) for survey question six, group B, is
greater than the tabled Chi-square value (5.991) at the 0.05 level
of significance, the results obtained are statistically significant.
It can be concluded that subjects perceive single mothers always
feel tired. This finding aligns with the research conducted by
Hittner (1998) who found single mothers are tired all the time.
Research Question Two
What are the issues a single mother faces in
providing quality child care? Questions 2, 3, and 4 of the survey
instrument located in Appendix A addressed this Research Question.
The computed Chi-square value (2.1111) for survey
question two, group A, is less than the tabled Chi-square value
(7.815) at the 0.05 level of significance, therefore the variance in
the results is not statistically significant. Because the computed
Chi-square value (6.0800) for survey question two, group B, is
greater than the tabled Chi-square value (5.991) at the 0.05 level
of significance, the obtained results are statistically significant.
It can be concluded that subjects perceive that single mothers
rarely read to their children. This finding aligns with the research
conducted by Craig (2005) who found single mothers compensate for
the lack of time provided by a father chiefly by spending time
supervising the children while engaging in other tasks.
Because the computed Chi-square value (0.1111) for
survey question three, group A, is less than the tabled Chi-square
value (3.841) at the 0.05 level of significance, the variance in the
results is not statistically significant. The computed Chi-square
value (1.0400) for survey question three, group B, is less than the
tabled Chi-square value (5.991) at the 0.05 level of significance,
so the variance in the result is not statistically significant.
All subjects agreed that they always praise their children
(Survey Question 4 , group A ). This finding deviates with the
research that reports parenting stress leads to less - nurturing
behaviors toward the child (Crnic & Greenberg, 1987). Inadequate
statistical information prevents One-dimensional Chi-square analysis
for this survey instrument item. The computed Chi-square value
(6.0800) for survey question four , group B, is greater than the
tabled Chi-square value (5.991) at the 0 .05 level of significance,
so the obtained results are statistically significant. There fore ,
it can be concluded that subjects perceive that single mothers
occasionally praise their children. This finding deviates with the
research by Crnic and Greenberg as stated above.
Findings
The results
of the One-dimensional Chi-square statistical test for the survey
questions 1, 5, and 6 suggest that selected single mothers in the
Santa Clarita area rarely find time to relax. The findings also
suggest that selected students at The Master’s College perceive that
single mothers feel pressured about not having a father figure in
their children’s lives more than “sometimes,” that they rarely find
time to relax, and that they always feel tired. The results for
survey questions 2, 3, and 4 suggest that selected single mothers in
the Santa Clarita area always praise their children. They also
suggest that selected students at The Master’s College perceive that
single mothers rarely read to their children and that they sometimes
praise their children.
Discussion
Within the stated purpose and findings of this
study, the following conclusions appear warranted:
- Single mothers are stressed.
- Single mothers are perceived to be stressed.
- Single mothers’ stress does not appear to affect their
provision of quality child care as often as it is perceived.
Many single mothers were under stress and lacked the
time to invest in their children. However, the majority of single
mothers in the Santa Clarita area seemed to provide adequate child
care in spite of the stress they constantly experience. The Master’s
College students are aware of the stress that accompanies being a
single mother. They also assumed a lack of quality child care in
these families.
This study revealed that there was great variance in
the quality of child care provided in each of the single mother
families, suggesting that there may be other factors that contribute
to the inability of mothers to provide quality child care. A
constant theme appeared to be a lack of time. It is imperative that
these women identify individuals who will assist them in their
responsibilities, thus potentially enabling them to spend more time
with their children.
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Appendix A
A
Survey for Single Mothers
I am conducting research for a class at the
Master’s College on stress and stress management of single mothers.
Please take a moment and fill out this survey entirely and
accurately to the best of your ability. Your answer will be a great
assistance to my research. I highly appreciate your participation!
Salome Bronnimann
Respond to each statement.
1 – Never 2-Rarely 3-Sometimes 4-Often
5-Always
1. I feel pressured about not having a father figure in my children
’ s
life.
1 2 3 4 5
OR □ There is a father figure.
2.
I read to my children daily.
1 2 3 4 5
3. My children have an established bed time.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I have praised my children in the last week.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I find time to relax.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I feel tired.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I have supportive friends nearby.
YES NO
8. I had meals with my children _______ times
during the past week.
Please Return Anonymously.
Thank you
Appendix B
A
Survey Concerning Single Mothers
I am conducting research for a class on stress of
single mothers. Please take a moment and fill out this survey
entirely in a way that best reflect your knowledge or beliefs
concerning single mothers of young children. Your answer will be a
great assistance to my research. Please simply return this sheet
through campus mail within a day or two. I highly appreciate your
participation!
Salome Bronnimann
Circle appropriate response.
1 – Never 2-Rarely 3-Sometimes 4-Often 5-Always
1. Single mothers feel pressured about the
absence of a father figure.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Single mothers read to their children daily.
1 2 3 4 5
3. The children of single mothers have an
established bed time.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Single mothers praise their children
throughout the week.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Single mothers find time to relax.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Single mothers feel tired.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Specify your gender.
MALE FEMALE
8. Do you personally know any single mothers?
YES NO
Please Return Anonymously.
Thank you